| Orginal Article |
|
|
|
|
| Potential of rooftop rainwater harvesting to meet outdoor water demand in arid regions |
TAMADDUN Kazi1, KALRA Ajay2, AHMAD Sajjad3,*( ) |
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, USA
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, USA |
|
|
|
Abstract The feasibility of rooftop rainwater harvesting (RRWH) as an alternative source of water to meet the outdoor water demand in nine states of the U.S. was evaluated using a system dynamics model developed in Systems Thinking, Experimental Learning Laboratory with Animation. The state of Arizona was selected to evaluate the effects of the selected model parameters on the efficacy of RRWH since among the nine states the arid region of Arizona showed the least potential of meeting the outdoor water demand with rain harvested water. The analyses were conducted on a monthly basis across a 10-year projected period from 2015 to 2024. The results showed that RRWH as a potential source of water was highly sensitive to certain model parameters such as the outdoor water demand, the use of desert landscaping, and the percentage of existing houses with RRWH. A significant difference (as high as 37.5%) in rainwater potential was observed between the projected wet and dry climate conditions in Arizona. The analysis of the dynamics of the storage tanks suggested that a 1.0-2.0 m3 rainwater barrel, on an average, can store approximately 80% of the monthly rainwater generated from the rooftops in Arizona, even across the high seasonal variation. This interactive model can be used as a quick estimator of the amount of water that could be generated, stored, and utilized through RRWH systems in the U.S. under different climate conditions. The findings of such comprehensive analyses may help regional policymakers, especially in arid regions, to develop a sustainable water management infrastructure.
|
|
Received: 28 April 2017
Published: 10 February 2018
|
|
Corresponding Authors:
|
|
|
| [1] | Ahmad S, Simonovic S P.2000. System dynamics modeling of reservoir operations for flood management. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 14(3): 190-198. | | [2] | Angrill S, Farreny R, Gasol C M, et al.2012. Environmental analysis of rainwater harvesting infrastructures in diffuse and compact urban models of Mediterranean climate. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17(1): 25-42. | | [3] | Arizona Department of Water Resources (ADWR). 2016. Arizona Drought Preparedness Annual Report. [2016-09-30]. . | | [4] | Basinger M, Montalto F, Lall U.2010. A rainwater harvesting system reliability model based on nonparametric stochastic rainfall generator. Journal of Hydrology, 392(3-4). | | [5] | Bitterman P, Tate E, Van Meter K J, et al.2016. Water security and rainwater harvesting: a conceptual framework and candidate indicators. Applied Geography, 76: 75-84. | | [6] | Cain N L.2010. A different path: the global water crisis and rainwater harvesting. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(1): 187-196. | | [7] | Chagwiza G.2016. Formulation of a nonlinear water distribution problem with water rationing: an optimisation approach. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 2(4): 379-385. | | [8] | Che-Ani A I, Shaari N, Sairi A, et al.2009. Rainwater harvesting as an alternative water supply in the future. European Journal of Scientific Research, 34(1): 132-140. | | [9] | Chen C, Ahmad S, Kalra A, et al.2017. A dynamic model for exploring water-resource management scenarios in an inland arid area: Shanshan County, Northwestern China. Journal of Mountain Science, 14(6): 1039-1057. | | [10] | Elshorbagy A, Jutla A, Barbour L, et al.2005. System dynamics approach to assess the sustainability of reclamation of disturbed watersheds. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 32(1): 144-158. | | [11] | Forasté J A, Hirschman D. 2010. A methodology for using rainwater harvesting as a stormwater management BMP. In: Low Impact Development International Conference (LID) 2010. San Francisco, California, United States: ASCE, 31-44. | | [12] | Ford A. 1999. Modeling the Environment: An Introduction to System Dynamics Modeling of Environmental Systems. Washington, DC: Island Press, 401. | | [13] | Ford A. 2011. System dynamics models of environment, energy and climate change. In: Meyers R A. Extreme Environmental Events: Complexity in Forecasting and Early Warning. New York: Springer, 908-927. | | [14] | Forrester J W, Senge P M. 1980. Tests for building confidence in system dynamics models. In: Legasto A A Jr, Forrester J W, Lyneis J M. System Dynamics: TIMS Studies in the Management Sciences, Vol. 14. Amsterdam: North Holland Press, 209-228. | | [15] | Forrester J W.1994. System dynamics, systems thinking, and soft OR. System Dynamics Review, 10(2-3): 245-256. | | [16] | Gastélum J R, Valdés J B, Stewart S.2009. A decision support system to improve water resources management in the Conchos basin. Water Resources Management, 23(8): 1519-1548. | | [17] | Ghimire S R, Johnston J M.2013. Impacts of domestic and agricultural rainwater harvesting systems on watershed hydrology: a case study in the Albemarle-Pamlico river basins (USA). Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 13(2): 159-171. | | [18] | Griffin R C, Chang C.1991. Seasonality in community water demand. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 16(2): 207-217. | | [19] | Jothiprakash V, Sathe M V.2009. Evaluation of rainwater harvesting methods and structures using analytical hierarchy process for a large scale industrial area. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 1(6): 427-438. | | [20] | Khadse G K, Patni P M, Talkhande A V, et al.2016. Change in drinking water quality from catchment to consumers: a case study. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 2(4): 453-460. | | [21] | Kloss C.2008. Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure: Municipal Handbook: Green Streets. EPA-833-F-08-009 Chicago: U. S. EPA. [2015-04-29] | | [22] | Li F R, Cook S, Geballe G T, et al.2000. Rainwater harvesting agriculture: an integrated system for water management on rainfed land in China’s semiarid areas. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, 29(8): 477-483. | | [23] | Lim K J, Engel B A, Muthukrishnan S, et al.2006. Effects of initial abstraction and urbanization on estimated runoff using CN technology. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 42(3): 629-643. | | [24] | MacDonald G M.2010. Water, climate change, and sustainability in the southwest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(50): 21256-21262. | | [25] | Maupin M A, Kenny J F, Hutson S S, et al.2014. Estimated use of water in the United States in 2010. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey Circular, 56, doi: 10.3133/cir1405. | | [26] | Middelkoop H, Daamen K, Gellens D, et al.2001. Impact of climate change on hydrological regimes and water resources management in the Rhine Basin. Climatic Change, 49(1-2): 105-128. | | [27] | Ministry of Housing and Local Government (MHLG). 2008. Guidelines for installing a rainwater collection and utilization system, 1999. Malaysia: Ministry of Housing and Local Government. | | [28] | Oregon’s Department of Consumer and Business Services (ODCBS). 2014. Oregon Smart Guide. [2015-05-06]. | | [29] | Qaiser K, Ahmad S, Johnson W, et al.2013. Evaluating water conservation and reuse policies using a dynamic water balance model. Environmental Management, 51(2): 449-458. | | [30] | Rahman S, Khan M T R, Akib S, et al. 2014. Sustainability of rainwater harvesting system in terms of water quality. The Scientific World Journal, 2014: 721357. | | [31] | Rijsberman F R.2006. Water scarcity: fact or fiction? Agricultural Water Management, 80(1-3): 5-22. | | [32] | Rossman L A. 2013. National Stormwater Calculator User’s Guide (EPA/600/R-13/085c): (January). [2015-04-29].. | | [33] | Rusuli Y, Li L H, Ahmad S, et al.2015. Dynamics model to simulate water and salt balance of Bosten Lake in Xinjiang, China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 74(3): 2499-2510. | | [34] | Shammi M, Rahman R, Rahman M M, et al.2016. Assessment of salinity hazard in existing water resources for irrigation and potentiality of conjunctive uses: a case report from Gopalganj District, Bangladesh. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 2(4): 369-378. | | [35] | Shreckengost R C. 1985. Dynamic simulation models: how valid are they? In: Rouse B A, Kozel N J, Richards L G. Self-report Methods of Estimating Drug Use: Meeting Current Challenges to Validity. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. | | [36] | Simonovic S P, Ahmad S.2005. Computer-based model for flood evacuation emergency planning. Natural Hazards, 34(1): 25-51. | | [37] | Stave K A.2003. A system dynamics model to facilitate public understanding of water management options in Las Vegas, Nevada. Journal of Environmental Management, 67(4): 303-313. | | [38] | Sterman J D.2000. Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World. New York: McGraw-Hill, 982. | | [39] | Tamaddun K, Kalra A, Ahmad S.2016. Identification of streamflow changes across the continental United States using variable record lengths. Hydrology, 3(2): 24. | | [40] | Tamaddun K A, Kalra A, Ahmad S.2017a. Wavelet analyses of western US streamflow with ENSO and PDO. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 8(1): 26-39. | | [41] | Tamaddun K A, Kalra A, Bernardez M, et al.2017b. Multi-Scale Correlation between the western U.S. Snow Water equivalent and ENSO/PDO using wavelet analyses. Water Resources Management, 31(9): 2745-2759. | | [42] | Temesgen T, Han M, Park H, et al.2016. Policies and strategies to overcome barriers to rainwater harvesting for urban use in Ethiopia. Water Resources Management, 30(14): 5205-5215. | | [43] | Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ). 2007. Harvesting, Storing, and Treating Rainwater for Domestic Use (GI-366). TCEQ Publication, 1-52. | | [44] | Texas Water Development Board (TWDB). 2005. The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting (3rd ed.). [2015-05-04]. | | [45] | Tidwell V C, Passell H D, Conrad S H, et al.2004. System dynamics modeling for community-based water planning: application to the middle Rio Grande. Aquatic Sciences, 66(4): 357-372. | | [46] | Turner G M, Baynes T M, McInnis B C.2010. A water accounting system for strategic water management. Water Resources Management, 24(3): 513-545. | | [47] | United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Rainwater Harvesting: Conservation, Credit, Codes, and Cost Literature Review and Case Studies. [2015-05-04]. . | | [48] | Venkatesan A K, Ahmad S, Johnson W, et al.2011. Systems dynamic model to forecast salinity load to the Colorado River due to urbanization within the Las Vegas Valley. Science of the Total Environment, 409(13): 2616-2625. | | [49] | Ward S, Memon F A, Butler D.2010. Rainwater harvesting: model-based design evaluation. Water Science and Technology: A Journal of The International Association on Water Pollution Research, 61(1): 85-96. | | [50] | Woodhouse C A, Meko D M, MacDonald G M, et al.2010. A 1,200-year perspective of 21st century drought in southwestern North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(50): 21283-21288. | | [51] | World Health Organization (WHO). 2009. World Health Statistics 2009. [2015-04-24]. . | | [52] | Yuan Y P, Nie W M, McCutcheon S C, et al.2014. Initial abstraction and curve numbers for semiarid watersheds in Southeastern Arizona. Hydrological Processes, 28(3): 774-783. | | [53] | Zhang F Y, Ahmad S, Zhang H Q, et al.2016. Simulating low and high streamflow driven by snowmelt in an insufficiently gauged alpine basin. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 30(1): 59-75. |
|
|
Viewed |
|
|
|
Full text
|
|
|
|
|
Abstract
|
|
|
|
|
Cited |
|
|
|
|
| |
Shared |
|
|
|
|
| |
Discussed |
|
|
|
|
