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Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2023, Vol. 15 Issue (4): 407-423    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-023-0100-x     CSTR: 32276.14.s40333-023-0100-x
Research article     
Potential risk of soil irrigation with treated wastewater over 40 years: a field experiment under semi-arid conditions in northeastern Tunisia
Sarra HECHMI1,*(), Samira MELKI1, Mohamed-Naceur KHELIL2, Rim GHRIB2, Moncef GUEDDARI3, Naceur JEDIDI1
1Water Research and Technology Center, University of Carthage, Soliman 8020, Tunisia
2National Institute for Research in Rural Engineering, Water and Forestry, Ariana 2080, Tunisia
3Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 2092, Tunisia
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Abstract  

In Tunisia, water scarcity is only adding pressure on water demand in agriculture. In the context of sustainable development goals, Tunisia has been reusing treated wastewater (TWW) as a renewable and inexpensive source for soil fertigation and groundwater (GW) recharge. However, major risks can be expected when the irrigation water is of poor quality. This study aims for evaluating the potential risk of TWW and GW irrigation on soil parameters. Accordingly, we evaluated the suitability of water quality through the analysis of major and minor cations and anions, metallic trace elements (MTEs), and the sodium hazard by using the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and the soluble sodium percentage (SSP). The risk of soil sodicity was further assessed by SAR and the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). The degree of soil pollution caused by MTEs accumulation was evaluated using geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI). Soil maps were generated using inverse spline interpolation in ArcGIS software. The results show that both water samples (i.e., TWW and GW) are suitable for soil irrigation in terms of salinity (electrical conductivity<7000 μS/cm) and sodicity (SAR<10.00; SSP<60.00%). However, the contents of PO43-, Cu2+, and Cd2+ exceed the maximum threshold values set by the national and other standards. Concerning the soil samples, the average levels of SAR and ESP are within the standards (SAR<13.00; ESP<15.00%). On the other hand, PLI results reveal moderate pollution in the plot irrigated with TWW and no to moderate pollution in the plot irrigated with GW. Igeo results indicate that Cu2+ is the metallic trace element (MTE) with the highest risk of soil pollution in both plots (Igeo>5.00), followed by Ni2+ and Pb2+. Nevertheless, Cd2+ presents the lowest risk of soil pollution (Igeo<0.00). Statistical data indicates that Ca2+, Na+, Ni2+, and Pb2+ are highly distributed in both plots (coefficient of variation>50.0%). This study shows that the use of imagery tools, such as ArcGIS, can provide important information for evaluating the current status of soil fertility or pollution and for better managing soil irrigation with TWW.

Key words： treated wastewater      metallic trace elements (MTEs)      pollution indices      sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)      geoaccumulation index (Igeo)      Tunisia     
Received: 20 July 2022      Published: 30 April 2023
Corresponding Authors: *Sarra HECHMI (E-mail: sarra-hechmi@hotmail.com)
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Sarra HECHMI
Samira MELKI
Mohamed-Naceur KHELIL
Rim GHRIB
Moncef GUEDDARI
Naceur JEDIDI
Cite this article:

Sarra HECHMI, Samira MELKI, Mohamed-Naceur KHELIL, Rim GHRIB, Moncef GUEDDARI, Naceur JEDIDI. Potential risk of soil irrigation with treated wastewater over 40 years: a field experiment under semi-arid conditions in northeastern Tunisia. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(4): 407-423.

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http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-023-0100-x     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2023/V15/I4/407

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (°C) 12.1 12.2 13.3 15.0 18.4 22.2 25.1 26.1 24.0 20.7 16.5 13.3
Rainfall (mm) 71.7 59.7 48.3 35.4 20.5 7.3 4.3 6.5 45.0 81.6 75.9 82.2
Evaporation (mm) 73.2 70.4 80.7 85.0 98.3 125.0 148.5 136.4 114.1 94.4 80.5 75.8
Wind speed (m/s) 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.8 3.0
Table 1 Monthly average temperature, rainfall, evaporation, and wind speed at Nabeul Station during the period from 1990 to 2019
Fig. 1 Overview of the study area and soil sampling sites. P-TWW, plot irrigated with treated wastewater (TWW); P-GW, plot irrigated with groundwater (GW).
Physico-chemical characteristic TWW GW Characteristic values reported in standard files
pH 7.35±0.20a 7.45±0.30a 6.50-8.50#
EC (µS/cm) 2950.0±35.0a 3610.0±20.0b <7000.0#
TSS (mg/L) 14.0±0.5b 4.2±0.7a <30.0#
COD (mg/L) 28.8±2.0b 9.6±1.2a <90.0#
NH4+ (mg/L) 3.8±0.7b 0.5±0.2a <1.0#
NO3- (mg/L) 23.7±2.0a 24.0±2.5a <50.0#
PO43- (mg/L) 30.5±5.7b 2.3±0.9a <0.3*
Ca²⁺ (mg/L) 311.9±24.5b 251.1±19.0a <500.0#
Mg²⁺ (mg/L) 51.3±9.0a 116.2±10.2b <200.0#
Na⁺ (mg/L) 485.5±24.0a 420.8±50.0a <500.0#
K⁺ (mg/L) 21.7±2.0a 21.6±1.7a <50.0#
Cl- (mg/L) 624.8±35.0a 656.8±51.2a <2000.0#
SAR 6.71 5.50 <10.00**
SSP (%) 50.90 44.70 <60.00***
Cu2+ (mg/L) 0.92±0.02b 0.08±0.01a <0.50#
Ni2+ (mg/L) 0.03±0.01 <Detection limit <0.20#
Pb2+ (mg/L) 0.04±0.01 <Detection limit <1.00#
Cd2+ (mg/L) 0.06±0.01 <Detection limit <0.01#
Table 2 Physico-chemical characteristics of treated wastewater (TWW) and groundwater (GW) used for irrigation compared to the characteristic values reported in standard files
Plot Sample pH EC (μS/cm) OM (g/kg) TN (g/kg) TP (g/kg) Ca2+ (mmol/kg) Mg2+ (mmol/kg)
GW S1 8.06 106.8 25.9 0.64 0.32 127.0 16.5
S2 8.16 64.2 17.1 0.50 1.88 212.0 11.9
S3 8.32 68.5 16.4 0.27 1.52 194.0 6.7
S4 8.29 112.2 32.1 0.87 1.68 207.0 19.4
S5 8.18 84.9 16.7 0.31 0.93 129.0 13.9
S6 8.88 125.1 26.0 0.36 1.07 104.0 13.3
S7 8.50 206.0 11.7 0.56 8.15 48.0 13.3
Mean 8.34±0.28a 109.7±48.2a 20.8±7.2a 0.50±0.21a 2.22±2.67a 146.0±61.0a 13.6±3.9a
Plot Sample Na+ (mmol/kg) K+ (mmol/kg) CEC (mmol/kg) Cu2+ (mg/kg) Ni2+ (mg/kg) Pb2+ (mg/kg) Cd2+ (mg/kg)
GW S1 6.2 2.5 153 100.00 4.00 14.00 0.70
S2 2.2 1.2 227 110.00 6.00 14.00 0.70
S3 3.7 3.3 208 100.00 6.00 11.00 0.50
S4 14.0 4.0 245 100.00 2.00 18.00 0.60
S5 19.6 1.6 164 90.00 2.00 37.00 0.50
S6 41.5 3.5 163 80.00 2.00 16.00 0.60
S7 16.1 3.6 81 90.00 3.00 3.00 0.30
Mean 14.8±13.5a 2.8±1.1a 177±55a 96.00±10.00a 4.00±2.00a 16.00±10.00a 0.60±0.10a
Plot Sample pH EC (μS/cm) OM (g/kg) TN (g/kg) TP (g/kg) Ca2+ (mmol/kg) Mg2+ (mmol/kg)
TWW S8 8.50 131.8 19.7 0.97 0.21 131.0 17.1
S9 8.90 135.4 11.1 0.95 0.42 182.0 24.1
S10 8.40 295.0 20.9 0.42 0.20 172.0 20.8
S11 8.30 134.7 40.9 0.48 1.21 389.0 36.3
S12 8.20 225.0 38.6 0.34 1.47 259.0 29.3
S13 8.30 87.2 24.8 0.98 0.19 141.0 26.0
S14 7.70 132.3 27.9 1.06 0.72 66.0 24.1
S15 8.04 115.5 19.5 0.22 1.10 65.0 17.0
S16 7.90 548.0 12.4 0.88 1.07 62.0 14.6
S17 8.60 360.0 30.3 1.06 2.07 226.0 29.3
S18 8.06 120.4 95.9 0.99 12.90 93.0 19.8
S19 8.30 216.0 29.9 1.23 2.43 158.0 29.2
S20 8.30 561.0 35.1 1.32 0.17 153.0 34.4
S21 8.60 233.0 30.3 0.81 7.71 227.0 33.1
S22 8.60 414.0 22.8 0.20 23.10 208.0 23.3
S23 8.80 205.0 30.1 0.66 22.10 288.0 28.3
S24 8.50 166.7 26.5 0.57 1.93 33.0 19.7
Mean 8.35±0.31a 240.1±148.2a 30.4±18.7a 0.77±0.35a 4.65±7.51a 168.0±93.0a 25.1±6.4b
Plot Sample Na+ (mmol/kg) K+ (mmol/kg) CEC (mmol/kg) Cu2+ (mg/kg) Ni2+ (mg/kg) Pb2+ (mg/kg) Cd2+ (mg/kg)
TWW S8 13.5 3.1 165 150.00 22.00 96.00 0.70
S9 8.9 2.5 217 140.00 29.00 129.00 0.60
S10 14.2 4.1 211 120.00 16.00 32.00 0.60
S11 3.5 9.6 438 170.00 44.00 52.00 0.80
S12 8.8 1.9 309 110.00 19.00 66.00 0.60
S13 5.7 5.1 178 140.00 11.00 32.00 0.80
S14 14.2 3.2 107 130.00 25.00 19.00 0.60
S15 9.1 2.7 94 260.00 14.00 42.00 0.90
S16 24.9 2.4 104 130.00 27.00 150.00 0.70
S17 21.4 5.0 282 180.00 24.00 57.00 0.90
S18 9.3 2.0 124 110.00 8.00 44.00 0.80
S19 16.7 5.4 209 220.00 23.00 54.00 0.60
S20 40.7 6.5 235 120.00 28.00 45.00 0.80
S21 20.2 5.9 286 120.00 8.00 101.00 0.70
S22 35.7 7.7 275 150.00 13.00 44.00 0.80
S23 18.3 3.5 338 190.00 18.00 194.00 0.80
S24 14.2 4.6 364 150.00 27.00 70.00 0.70
Mean 16.4±1.0a 5.0±2.7a 232±99a 152.00±41.00b 21.00±9.00b 72.00±47.00a 0.70±0.10a
Table 3 Soil physico-chemical characteristics after irrigation with GW and TWW
Plot Sample SAR ESP (%) Igeo PLI
Pb2+ Cd2+ Ni2+ Cu2+
GW S1 0.16 4.06 -0.82 -0.67 2.60 6.06 1.51
S2 0.05 0.97 -0.82 -0.67 3.18 6.20 1.61
S3 0.08 1.78 -1.17 -1.15 3.18 6.06 1.48
S4 0.29 5.72 -0.46 -0.89 1.60 6.06 1.40
S5 0.52 11.90 0.58 -1.15 1.60 5.91 1.48
S6 1.21 25.50 -0.63 -0.89 1.60 5.74 1.34
S7 0.65 19.90 -3.04 -1.89 2.18 5.91 1.07
Mean 0.42±0.41a 9.98±9.53a -0.91±1.1a -1.04±0.42a 2.28±0.72a 5.99±0.15a 1.41±0.17a
TWW S8 0.35 8.19 2.38 -0.67 5.06 6.64 2.59
S9 0.20 4.09 0.37 -0.89 5.46 6.54 2.19
S10 0.32 6.73 1.07 -0.89 4.60 6.32 2.12
S11 0.05 0.80 1.42 -0.47 6.06 6.82 2.69
S12 0.16 2.84 0.37 -0.89 4.85 6.20 2.02
S13 0.14 3.20 -0.38 -0.47 4.06 6.54 1.89
S14 0.47 13.20 0.76 -0.89 5.24 6.44 2.21
S15 0.32 9.71 2.60 -0.30 4.41 7.44 2.76
S16 0.90 23.90 1.20 -0.67 5.35 6.44 2.36
S17 0.42 7.58 0.83 -0.30 5.18 6.91 2.42
S18 0.28 7.52 1.13 -0.47 3.60 6.20 2.00
S19 0.39 7.98 0.86 -0.89 5.12 7.20 2.35
S20 0.94 17.30 2.03 -0.47 5.41 6.32 2.56
S21 0.40 7.07 0.83 -0.67 3.60 6.32 1.94
S22 0.74 12.90 2.97 -0.47 4.30 6.64 2.60
S23 0.33 5.42 1.50 -0.47 4.77 6.98 2.45
S24 0.62 3.90 1.54 -0.67 5.35 6.64 2.47
Mean 0.41±0.25a 8.38±5.78a 1.26±0.86a -0.62±0.21a 4.85±0.68b 6.62±0.35b 2.33±0.27b
Table 4 Variation of soil pollution indices after irrigation with GW and TWW
Fig. 2 Comparison of coefficient of variation (CV) of soil parameters between P-TWW and P-GW. CEC, cation exchange capacity; SAR, sodium adsorption ratio; ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage; PLI, pollution load index.
Fig. 3 Spatial distribution of SAR (a), ESP (b), Na+ (c), Ca2+ (d), geoaccumulation index (Igeo) related to Pb2+ (e), and Igeo related to Ni2+ (f) in P-TWW and P-GW
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