Please wait a minute...
Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2022, Vol. 14 Issue (8): 837-848    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-022-0069-x
Review article     
Formation mechanisms and remediation techniques for low-efficiency artificial shelter forests on the Chinese Loess Plateau
WANG Yaobin, SHANGGUAN Zhouping()
State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
Download: HTML     PDF(823KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)      

Abstract  

The construction of artificial shelter forests (ASFs) has resulted in substantial ecological, economic, and societal benefits to the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP). However, the health and benefits of ASFs are being increasingly threatened by the formation of low-efficiency artificial shelter forests (LEASFs). In this study, LEASFs are systematically analyzed in terms of their status, formation mechanisms, and developmental obstacles. The key restoration techniques and schemes were summarized to improve the quality and efficiency of LEASFs. LEASFs are formed by relatively complex mechanisms, but they arise mainly due to poor habitat conditions, improper tree species selections, mismatch between stands and habitat, extensive forest management measures, and human interferences. The restoration and improvement of LEASFs are hindered by water deficits, mismatch between stands and habitat, single management purpose, and low efficiency. LEASFs are becoming more complex due to their wide range, the challenges associated with their restoration, and insufficient technological measures for their restoration. The key techniques of the quality and efficiency improvement of LEASFs include basic forest tending methods, near-natural restoration, multifunction-oriented improvement, and systematic restoration. An understanding on the formation mechanisms of LEASFs and a scientific approach toward their restoration are urgently needed and critical for the ecological protection and high-quality development of LEASFs on the CLP. Based on these analyses, we recommend strengthening the monitoring and supervision of LEASFs, considering the bearing capacity of regional water resources, implementing multiple restoration techniques, promoting multifunction-oriented ecological development, and exploring new management concepts to achieve the sustainable development of ASFs on the CLP.

Key words： low-efficiency artificial shelter forests      restoration      forest management      multifunctional forestry      near-natural forestry      Three-North Shelter Forest      Chinese Loess Plateau     
Received: 17 January 2022      Published: 30 August 2022
Corresponding Authors: * SHANGGUAN Zhouping (E-mail: shangguan@ms.iswc.ac.cn)
Service
E-mail this article
Add to my bookshelf
Add to citation manager
E-mail Alert
RSS
Articles by authors
WANG Yaobin
SHANGGUAN Zhouping
Cite this article:

WANG Yaobin, SHANGGUAN Zhouping. Formation mechanisms and remediation techniques for low-efficiency artificial shelter forests on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(8): 837-848.

URL:

http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-022-0069-x     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2022/V14/I8/837

Fig. 1 Formation mechanisms and performance types of low-efficiency artificial shelter forests (LEASFs) on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP)
Fig. 2 Analyses of the status of degraded artificial shelter forests (ASFs) on the CLP in 2017. (a), the proportions of different degrees of degraded shelter forests: severely degraded, moderately degraded, and mildly degraded; (b), the proportions of degraded ASFs in different growth indicators: crown density, coverage, density (the ratio of preserving plants to afforestation design plants), and biomass; (c), the proportions of areas of different forest types: farmland shelter forest, soil and water conservation forest, and windbreak and sand fixation forest; (d), the proportions of different influencing factors to forest degradation: human interferences, habitat conditions, disasters, physiological maturity, and species selection; (e), the proportions of degraded (severely degraded, moderately degraded, and mildly degraded) and normal forests in different regions on the CLP: Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Shanxi Province, Shaanxi Province, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Gansu Province, and Qinghai Province. The data are from the National Forestry and Grassland Administration of China (2017).
Fig. 3 Framework diagram for the quality and efficiency improvement of LEASFs on the CLP. This Figure is referenced and modified from Wang et al. (2021).
[1]   Ahmad B, Wang Y H, Hao J, et al. 2018. Optimizing stand structure for trade-offs between overstory timber production and understory plant diversity: A case-study of a larch plantation in northwest China. Land Degradation & Development, 29(9): 2998-3008.
doi: 10.1002/ldr.3070
[2]   Bennett E M, Peterson G D, Gordon L J. 2009. Understanding relationships among multiple ecosystem services. Ecology Letters, 12(12): 1394-1404.
doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01387.x pmid: 19845725
[3]   Bi H X, Hou G R. 2021. Transformation of Low Efficiency Soil and Water Conservation Forest in Loess Plateau. Beijing: Science Press, 10-15. (in Chinese)
[4]   Cai T Y, Jia Z K, Huang Y W, et al. 2011. Research progress of comprehensive effect under different rates straw mulch on the rainfed farming areas, China I. Effect of different rates of straw mulch on farmland ecoenvironment. Agricultural Research in the Arid Areas, 29(5): 63-68. (in Chinese)
[5]   Cheng J M, Wan H E, Wang J, et al. 2004. Over depletion and recovery of soil moisture on Astragalus adsurgens grasslands in the loess hilly-gully region. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 12(24): 2979-2983. (in Chinese)
[6]   Dade M C, Mitchell M G, Mcalpine C A, et al. 2019. Assessing ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies: The need for a more mechanistic approach. Ambio, 48(10): 1116-1128.
doi: 10.1007/s13280-018-1127-7
[7]   Deng L, Shangguan Z P, Sweeney S. 2014. "Grain for Green" driven land use change and carbon sequestration on the Loess Plateau, China. Scientific Reports, 4: 7039, doi: 10.1038/srep07039.
doi: 10.1038/srep07039 pmid: 25391219
[8]   Deng L, Kim D G, Li M, et al. 2019. Land-use changes driven by 'Grain for Green' program reduced carbon loss induced by soil erosion on the Loess Plateau of China. Global and Planetary Change, 177: 101-115.
doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.03.017
[9]   Fu B J, Wang S, Liu Y, et al. 2017. Hydrogeomorphic ecosystem responses to natural and anthropogenic changes in the Loess Plateau of China. Annual Review of Earth & Planetary Sciences, 45(1): 223-243.
[10]   Gao J R. 1999. Near natural control: torrent control engineering based on the landscape ecology. Journal of Beijing Forestry University, (1): 86-91. (in Chinese)
[11]   Guo X P, Zhu J Z, Yu X X, et al. 1998. The preliminary discussion on reforming the low-yield locust in Loess Plateau. Research of Soil and Water Conservation, 4(5): 77-82. (in Chinese)
[12]   Hao J. 2012. The influence of stand density of Larix Principis-rupprechtii management on the multiple functions in the Liupan Mountains of Ningxia China. PhD Dissertation. Beijing: Chinese Academy of Forestry. (in Chinese)
[13]   He J S, Bu H Y, Hu X W, et al. 2020. Close-to-nature restoration of degraded alpine grasslands: theoretical basis and technical approach. Chinese Science Bulletin, 65(34): 3898-3908.
[14]   Huang J H, Liao Y C, Gao M S, et al. 2009. Effects of tillage and mulching on orchard soil moisture content and temperature in Loess Plateau. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 20(11): 2652-2658. (in Chinese)
[15]   Huang X. 2020. Discussion on restoration technology of degraded forest of protective forest in Yunzhou District of Datong city. Forestry Shanxi, (S1): 44-45. (in Chinese)
[16]   Jiang F Z, Cen D H, Yu Z Y. 2006. Decline of protective forest and its prevention strategies from viewpoint of restoration ecology: Taking Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantation in Zhanggutai as an example. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 17(12): 2229-2235. (in Chinese)
[17]   Jiao J Y, Ma X H, Bai W J, et al. 2005. Correspondence analysis of vegetation communities and soil environmental factors on abandoned cropland on hilly-gullied loess plateau. Acta Pedologica Sinica, 42(5): 744-752. (in Chinese)
[18]   Li C Y, Li X L, Yang Y W, et al. 2020. Effect of nitrogen addition on soil bacterial diversity in alpine degraded grasslands of differing slope. Acta Prataculturae Sinica, 29(12): 161-170. (in Chinese)
[19]   Li L F, Han M Y, Zheng W, et al. 2009. The causes of formation of low quality forest of Pinus yunnanensis and their classification. Journal of West China Forestry Science, 38(4): 94-99. (in Chinese)
[20]   Liang C. 2019. Research on decision support system for improvement of low function plantation in South China. MSc Thesis. Beijing: Beijing Forestry University. (in Chinese)
[21]   Liu G B, Shangguan Z P, Yao W Y, et al. 2017. Ecological effects of soil conservation in Loess Plateau. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32(1): 11-19. (in Chinese)
[22]   Liu J J, Lei R D, Chen C G, et al. 1996. The near-natural and sustainable development theory in forest management and the forest management countermeasures in forest region of the Qinling Mountains. Journal of Northwest Forestry College, (S1): 163-169. (in Chinese)
[23]   Lu Y C, Liu X Z, Lei X D, et al. 2017. Technical system for plantation multi-function management. Journal of Central South University of Forestry & Technology, 37(7): 1-10. (in Chinese)
[24]   Mussinelli E, Tartaglia A, Bisogni L, et al. 2018. The role of nature-based solutions in architectural and urban design. Techne-Journal of Technology for Architecture and Environment, 116-123.
[25]   National Forestry and Grassland Administration of China. 2017. Study on the restoration of degraded stands in the construction of Three-North Shelterbelt System. Beijing: National Forestry and Grassland Administration of China. [2021-02-05]. http://www.forestry.gov.cn/sbj/5283/index.html.
[26]   Remeš J. 2018. Development and present state of close-to-nature silviculture. Journal of Landscape Ecology, 11(3): 17-32.
doi: 10.2478/jlecol-2018-0010
[27]   Ren H, Liu Q, Liu Z F. 2019. Restoration Ecology. Beijing: Science Press, 20-60. (in Chinese)
[28]   Ren Y F, Jia M Q, Jin L R. 2014. Effects and mechanisms of combined remediating polluted and degraded soil with mycorrhizal fungi and other living organisms. Journal of Qingdao Agricultural University (Natural Science), 31(4): 235-241. (in Chinese)
[29]   Resende R T, Soares A A V, Forrester D I, et al. 2018. Environmental uniformity, site quality and tree competition interact to determine stand productivity of clonal Eucalyptus. Forest Ecology and Management, 410: 76-83.
doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2017.12.038
[30]   Shao Q H. 1991. A boom of "nature-approximating forestry" in Middle Europe. World Forestry Research, 4(4): 8-15. (in Chinese)
[31]   Song L N, Zhu J J, Yan Q L. 2009. Review on the shelter forest decline. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 28(9): 1684-1690. (in Chinese)
[32]   Song T. 2020. A brief talk on the present situation and restoration countermeasures of degraded forest in Jingning County. Protection Forest Science and Technology, (4): 56-57. (in Chinese)
[33]   Sun C, Huang G, Fan Y. 2020. Multi-indicator evaluation for extreme precipitation events in the past 60 years over the Loess Plateau. Water, 12(1): 193.
doi: 10.3390/w12010193
[34]   Tian A. 2019. The spatio-temporal variation and optimal management of the multiple functions of larch plantation in the semi-humid Liupan Mountains of Northwest China. PhD Dissertation. Beijing: Chinese Academy of Forestry. (in Chinese)
[35]   Wan S M, Jia Z K, Han Q F, et al. 2008. Dry soil layer forming and soil moisture restoration of alfalfa grassland in the semi-humid region of the Loess Plateau. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 28(3): 1045-1051. (in Chinese)
[36]   Wang K, Deng L, Shangguan Z, et al. 2021. Sustainability of eco-environment in semi-arid regions: Lessons from the Chinese Loess Plateau. Environmental Science & Policy, 125: 126-134.
[37]   Wang L P. 2010. The reason analysis of forestry degeneration and it's suggestion for restoration activities in the ecosystem crisp areas in our country. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 31(2): 63-67.
[38]   Wang L Q, Wang W Y, Lin S, et al. 2021. Stand structure adjustment based on the near-natural management of plantation ecological public forests in eastern Qinghai. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 41(12): 5004-5015. (in Chinese)
[39]   Wang Q X, Fan M B, Zhang X H, et al. 2017. Trends of temperature and precipitation extremes in the Loess Plateau region of China, 1961-2010. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 129(3): 949-963.
[40]   Wang S, Fu B J, He C S, et al. 2011. A comparative analysis of forest cover and catchment water yield relationships in northern China. Forest Ecology and Management, 262(7): 1189-1198.
doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2011.06.013
[41]   Wang S, Fu B J, Chen H B, et al. 2018. Regional development boundary of China's Loess Plateau: Water limit and land shortage. Land Use Policy, 74: 130-136.
doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.03.003
[42]   Wang S W, Guo Z S. 2020. Effects of perennial Caragana korshinskii Kom on soil moisture. Research of Soil and Water Conservation, 27(3): 70-75. (in Chinese)
[43]   Wang Y H, Xiong W, Gampe S, et al. 2015. A water yield-oriented practical approach for multifunctional forest management and its application in dryland regions of China. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 51(3): 689-703.
doi: 10.1111/1752-1688.12314
[44]   Wang Y Q, Shao M A, Liu Z P, et al. 2012. Investigation of factors controlling the regional-scale distribution of dried soil layers under forestland on the Loess Plateau, China. Surveys in Geophysics, 33(2): 311-330.
doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9154-y
[45]   Xiao Y, Xie G D, Zhen L, et al. 2019. The cooling and humidifying effect by the forest ecosystem in the hilly and gully area of Loess Plateau of the Three North Shelter Forest System Project region. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 39(16): 5836-5846. (in Chinese)
[46]   Yan J J, Fu X L, He Z Y, et al. 2021. The Three-North Shelter Forest System construction in Shaanxi Province-achievements, problems and suggestions. Shaanxi Forest Science and Technology, 49(1): 97-99. (in Chinese)
[47]   Yang S L. 2018. Reformation of degraded shelterbelt in Qinghai Province. Inner Mongolia Forestry Investigation and Design, 41(6): 19-21. (in Chinese)
[48]   Yu J, Zhu C X, Guo P, et al. 2010. Restoration evaluation of bioactive humic substances on desertified soil in Xinjiang Glycyrrhiza uralensis production area. Chinese Journal of Agrometeorology, 31(3): 369-373, 378. (in Chinese)
[49]   Yu L, Yao W, Kang H. 2020. Status, existing problems and thinking of degraded forest in the Yellow River Basin in Shaanxi Province. Protection Forest Science and Technology, (6): 46-47. (in Chinese)
[50]   Yu P T, Krysanova V, Wang Y H, et al. 2009. Quantitative estimate of water yield reduction caused by forestation in a water-limited area in northwest China. Geophysical Research Letters, 36(2): L02406, doi: 10.1029/2008GL036744.
doi: 10.1029/2008GL036744
[51]   Zhang G C, Zhou Z F, Liu X, et al. 2007. Density structure and growth dynamics of Larix Principis-rupprechtii stand for water resource conservation in Wutai Mountain region in Shanxi Province. Science of Soil and Water Conservation, (1): 1-6. (in Chinese)
[52]   Zhang H L. 2017. Evaluate and study on modification technology of degraded poplar forest stand in the zone of middle Sanggan River Basin of the north of Yanmenguan in Shanxi. MSc Thesis. Beijing: Beijing Forestry University. (in Chinese)
[53]   Zhang S X, Lei R D, Chen C G, et al. 1996. "Near-natural Forest"-a promising "man-made natural forest". Journal of Northwest Forestry College, (S1): 157-162. (in Chinese)
[54]   Zhu J J, Kang H Z, Tan H, et al. 2006. Effects of drought stresses induced by polyethylene glycol on germination of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica seeds from natural and plantation forests on sandy land. Journal of Forest Research, 11(5): 319-328. (in Chinese)
doi: 10.1007/s10310-006-0214-y
[55]   Zhu J J. 2013. A review of the present situation and future prospect of science of protective forest. Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology, 37(9): 872-888. (in Chinese)
doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1258.2013.00091
[56]   Zhu J J, Zheng X. 2019. The prospects of development of the Three-North Afforestation Program (TNAP): On the basis of the results of the 40-year construction general assessment of the TNAP. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 38(5): 1600-1610. (in Chinese)
[57]   Zhu J Z, Zhou X C, Hu J Z. 2004. Thoughts and views about the three north shelterbelt program. Journal of Natural Resources, 19(1): 79-85. (in Chinese)
[58]   Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, et al. 2018. Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago. Nature, 559(7715): 608-612.
[1] NAN Weige, DONG Zhibao, ZHOU Zhengchao, LI Qiang, CHEN Guoxiang. Ecological effect of the plantation of Sabina vulgaris in the Mu Us Sandy Land, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(1): 14-28.
[2] LI Wenye, ZHANG Jianfeng, SONG Shuangshuang, LIANG Yao, SUN Baoping, WU Yi, MAO Xiao, LIN Yachao. Combination of artificial zeolite and microbial fertilizer to improve mining soils in an arid area of Inner Mongolia, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(9): 1067-1083.
[3] Mohsen SHARAFATMANDRAD, Azam KHOSRAVI MASHIZI. Evaluation of restoration success in arid rangelands of Iran based on the variation of ecosystem services[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(11): 1290-1314.
[4] Keiichi KIMURA, Akito KONO, Susumu YAMADA, Tomoyo F KOYANAGI, Toshiya OKURO. Grazing and heat stress protection of native grass by a sand-fixing shrub in the arid lands of northern China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(8): 867-876.
[5] WANG Kun, WANG Xiaoxia, FEI Hongyan, WAN Chuanyu, HAN Fengpeng. Changes in diversity, composition and assembly processes of soil microbial communities during Robinia pseudoacacia L. restoration on the Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(5): 561-575.
[6] WU Huining, CUI Qiaoyu. High-frequency climatic fluctuations over the past 30 ka in northwestern margin of the East Asian monsoon region, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(12): 1331-1343.
[7] LING Xinying, MA Jinzhu, CHEN Peiyuan, LIU Changjie, Juske HORITA. Isotope implications of groundwater recharge, residence time and hydrogeochemical evolution of the Longdong Loess Basin, Northwest China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(1): 34-55.
[8] CHEN Shumin, JIN Zhao, ZHANG Jing, YANG Siqi. Soil quality assessment in different dammed-valley farmlands in the hilly-gully mountain areas of the northern Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(8): 777-789.
[9] HUANG Laiming, ZHAO Wen, SHAO Ming'an. Response of plant physiological parameters to soil water availability during prolonged drought is affected by soil texture[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(7): 688-698.
[10] ZHOU Siyuan, DUAN Yufeng, ZHANG Yuxiu, GUO Jinjin. Vegetation dynamics of coal mining city in an arid desert region of Northwest China from 2000 to 2019[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(5): 534-547.
[11] KE Zengming, LIU Xiaoli, MA Lihui, TU Wen, FENG Zhe, JIAO Feng, WANG Zhanli. Effects of restoration modes on the spatial distribution of soil physical properties after land consolidation: a multifractal analysis[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(12): 1201-1214.
[12] Robson B de LIMA, Patrícia A B BARRETO-GARCIA, Alessandro de PAULA, Jhuly E S PEREIRA, Flávia F de CARVALHO, Silvio H M GOMES. Improving wood volume predictions in dry tropical forest in the semi-arid Brazil[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2020, 12(6): 1046-1055.
[13] Ahmed M M HASOBA, Ahmed A H SIDDIG, Yousif E YAGOUB. Exploring tree diversity and stand structure of savanna woodlands in southeastern Sudan[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2020, 12(4): 609-617.
[14] Masoud BAZGIR, Reza OMIDIPOUR, Mehdi HEYDARI, Nasim ZAINALI, Masoud HAMIDI, Daniel C DEY. Prioritizing woody species for the rehabilitation of arid lands in western Iran based on soil properties and carbon sequestration[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2020, 12(4): 640-652.
[15] Zahra JAFARI, SayedHamid MATINKHAH, Mohammad R MOSADDEGHI, Mostafa TARKESH. Evaluation of the efficiency of irrigation methods on the growth and survival of tree seedlings in an arid climate[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2020, 12(3): 495-507.