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Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2025, Vol. 17 Issue (7): 933-957    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-025-0023-9     CSTR: 32276.14.JAL.02500239
Research article     
Health risk assessment of heavy metals in coal mine soils of Northwest China
LI Yun1,2, ZHUANG Zhong3, XIA Qianrou4,*(), SHI Qingdong1,2, ZHU Jiawei1,2, WANG Peijuan1,2, LI Dinghao1,2, Yryszhan ZHAKYPBEK5, Serik TURSBEKOV5
1College of Ecology and Environment, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
2Key Laboratory of Oasis Ecology, Ministry of Education (Xinjiang University), Urumqi 830046, China
3College of Resources and Environment Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
4Xinjiang Academy of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
5Department of Mine Surveying and Geodesy, Institute Mining and Metallurgical Institute named after O.A. Baikonurov, Satbayev University, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan
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Abstract  

Coal mining predisposes soils to heavy metal (HM) accumulation, which adversely affects the ecological environment and human health, particularly in extremely arid and vulnerable areas. In this study, soil samples were gathered from the Black Mountain Open Pit Coal Mine in Turpan City, Northwest China to determine the health risk of heavy metals (HMs). Results showed that positive matrix factorization model divided the sources of soil HMs into four categories, i.e., natural and animal husbandry (43.46%), industrial transportation (22.87%), fossil fuel combustion (10.64%), and atmospheric deposition and domestic pollution (23.03%). All kinds of pollution evaluation indices showed that Cd (cadmium) and Pb (plumbum) pollution was evident. The Monte Carlo simulated health risk assessment results showed that 4.00% non-carcinogenic risk and 12.00% carcinogenic risk were posed to children, and the positive matrix factorization-based health risk assessment showed that fossil fuel combustion had the highest contribution to the health risks to adults and children, while industrial transportation was the lowest. In this study, the risks of HMs in the soil of mining area were analyzed using source analysis, which not only provides reliable data support for the prevention and control of HM pollution in the soil of this arid mining area, but also provides a theoretical basis for subsequent regional research.

Key words： arid area      soil heavy metals      positive matrix factorization      Monte Carlo simulation      health risk assessment     
Received: 03 January 2025      Published: 31 July 2025
Corresponding Authors: *XIA Qianrou (E-mail: xqrqt@163.com)
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LI Yun
ZHUANG Zhong
XIA Qianrou
SHI Qingdong
ZHU Jiawei
WANG Peijuan
LI Dinghao
Yryszhan ZHAKYPBEK
Serik TURSBEKOV
Cite this article:

LI Yun, ZHUANG Zhong, XIA Qianrou, SHI Qingdong, ZHU Jiawei, WANG Peijuan, LI Dinghao, Yryszhan ZHAKYPBEK, Serik TURSBEKOV. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in coal mine soils of Northwest China. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(7): 933-957.

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http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-025-0023-9     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2025/V17/I7/933

Fig. 1 Overview and sample sites of the study area. DEM, digital elevation model.
Sample Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn As pH
(mg/kg)
1 0.12 63.24 41.18 30,416.67 868.87 29.17 2.45 90.69 5.17 7.66
2 0.12 45.95 40.48 26,809.52 1024.29 22.62 3.57 88.57 6.76 8.16
3 0.17 49.01 36.14 22,898.52 623.52 22.53 7.43 70.30 7.40 8.60
4 0.12 53.68 41.67 27,034.31 1002.94 25.00 2.70 99.76 9.04 7.79
5 0.19 58.81 44.52 32,261.91 752.14 26.43 16.19 95.00 4.73 7.60
6 0.25 62.01 48.53 28,774.51 974.51 31.13 6.37 98.53 6.33 7.74
7 0.19 57.93 48.32 26,899.04 1070.91 31.73 0.72 107.93 9.03 7.85
8 0.15 34.31 21.08 11,875.00 804.90 12.75 1.47 70.59 13.71 8.13
9 0.12 60.44 48.54 24,135.92 784.95 28.16 3.88 88.35 13.04 7.20
10 0.08 64.00 42.75 32,500.00 956.50 29.75 9.50 104.00 12.26 7.88
11 0.12 70.71 64.52 35,571.43 916.91 33.10 10.95 111.43 19.93 8.36
12 0.38 66.75 43.25 29,275.00 749.25 28.50 9.50 89.75 14.57 8.06
13 0.62 71.29 42.33 32,450.50 814.36 27.97 12.87 103.96 13.19 8.04
14 0.12 57.77 37.38 30,194.18 695.63 27.18 18.45 104.61 8.58 7.85
15 0.15 56.86 48.28 31,568.63 734.31 25.98 10.29 99.02 13.08 7.89
16 0.12 48.81 28.81 23,523.81 422.38 21.67 1.91 75.71 6.50 7.98
17 0.19 50.49 32.04 22,237.86 648.30 22.82 6.55 77.18 12.41 7.68
18 0.13 69.25 47.75 31,150.00 827.75 26.50 11.75 113.25 12.40 7.87
19 0.36 72.82 60.44 29,733.01 848.54 28.16 10.92 98.06 19.49 7.56
20 0.12 54.05 43.10 24,047.62 541.43 23.33 13.81 93.33 17.50 7.76
21 0.10 65.00 48.81 32,928.57 763.81 26.67 7.38 94.52 14.80 8.40
22 0.36 183.89 90.39 46,177.89 1287.02 79.81 8.89 56.25 10.26 8.41
23 0.12 48.52 46.54 29,133.66 875.50 23.27 17.33 112.38 9.31 7.96
24 0.07 59.62 38.94 27,019.23 699.76 27.64 6.25 122.12 12.14 7.55
25 0.12 60.29 67.65 27,867.65 1005.15 24.76 7.60 128.92 9.93 7.76
26 0.20 67.75 123.25 35,750.00 2208.25 32.25 21.75 125.25 12.63 8.66
27 0.12 54.81 31.49 26,875.00 589.42 19.71 8.41 66.83 15.38 8.49
28 0.20 50.74 58.82 27,573.53 1157.11 22.55 28.68 171.81 10.61 7.05
29 0.12 67.14 50.24 34,023.81 941.19 31.19 27.14 113.81 15.11 8.09
30 0.15 44.66 35.44 21,089.81 646.36 21.36 8.50 68.20 16.95 7.83
31 0.10 52.43 53.16 29,441.75 1063.59 18.93 15.05 108.50 12.71 8.50
32 0.12 56.49 55.77 29,615.39 1212.74 29.57 10.82 91.11 12.52 7.55
33 0.12 55.83 64.81 29,733.01 1215.29 27.67 12.38 87.62 12.87 7.44
34 0.25 76.25 59.25 28,500.00 1075.00 34.75 4.75 82.00 12.45 8.12
35 0.12 70.30 58.91 25,792.08 885.64 33.66 2.48 91.09 15.60 7.21
36 0.07 52.70 70.83 28,137.26 1054.90 31.13 1.96 90.44 13.89 8.28
37 1.24 53.22 65.84 26,584.16 1109.16 28.47 1.24 84.41 12.20 8.26
38 0.26 32.65 15.31 7882.65 193.88 6.63 5.61 34.18 8.78 8.02
39 0.12 57.52 62.86 28,058.25 772.09 32.04 12.38 102.91 22.44 8.25
40 0.18 54.75 34.50 21,902.50 521.00 31.25 25.00 76.50 17.17 8.13
41 0.13 59.85 36.11 24,853.54 599.24 30.81 16.92 93.94 15.57 8.18
42 0.17 61.88 61.63 32,846.54 661.88 32.43 14.60 93.56 25.91 8.19
43 0.12 67.57 27.97 26,782.18 445.30 28.47 18.32 100.74 5.17 8.25
44 0.22 65.93 45.34 24,102.94 379.17 25.98 34.56 80.64 9.44 8.13
45 0.12 70.39 48.30 29,223.30 706.55 32.28 16.02 71.60 10.60 8.51
46 0.15 66.50 49.25 24,990.00 711.75 34.50 2.25 74.75 11.38 8.40
47 0.18 58.75 49.75 27,675.00 779.25 33.75 7.50 74.50 9.60 8.37
48 0.15 53.75 34.50 25,950.00 635.75 26.50 16.75 87.75 6.25 7.83
49 0.12 59.90 43.81 28,267.33 699.51 30.45 14.60 91.34 10.35 7.74
50 0.27 52.21 32.35 24,470.59 540.44 25.49 13.24 108.09 10.04 8.41
51 0.12 46.12 32.77 24,514.56 478.40 23.30 18.69 72.57 8.44 7.62
52 0.19 49.52 24.29 24,261.91 305.71 24.29 25.48 66.67 4.50 8.48
53 0.12 39.11 18.56 19,608.91 307.92 19.06 18.07 54.70 2.27 8.34
54 0.20 49.25 27.50 23,455.00 309.50 22.75 16.25 77.75 3.99 8.09
55 0.12 55.69 36.63 24,950.50 324.75 28.47 28.71 74.51 6.86 7.92
56 0.13 50.50 29.00 23,627.50 452.75 24.25 28.25 81.25 6.34 8.33
57 0.19 44.18 48.06 20,179.61 231.80 21.60 25.00 74.03 10.88 8.22
58 0.10 33.65 18.27 14,887.02 260.34 15.87 22.12 56.49 4.94 7.94
59 0.10 26.21 21.36 16,844.66 513.84 13.35 16.02 77.67 7.90 7.91
60 0.17 61.63 38.37 26,287.13 163.61 16.58 40.84 44.06 0.90 9.15
61 0.05 52.21 67.89 28,750.00 1061.77 28.68 14.22 85.05 10.59 8.35
Table S1 Heavy metal (HM) concentration and pH value in soil samples
Strength of correlation Range Type of exploratory factor analysis indicator Range Result of exploratory factor analysis
No or very weak r<0.2 KMO value KMO<0.6 Unsuitable
Weak 0.2≤r<0.4 0.6≤KMO<0.7 Feasible
Moderate 0.4≤r<0.6 0.7≤KMO<0.8 Moderately suitable
Strong 0.6≤r<0.8 KMO≥0.8 Highly suitable
Very strong r≥0.8 Bartlett test P≥0.050 No
P<0.050 Yes
Table 1 Classification of correlation coefficient and exploratory factor analysis
Type Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn As
(mg/kg)
MDL 0.01 0.05 0.20 1.50 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.50
Table 2 Method detection limit (MDL) for the nine heavy metals (HMs)
NIPI criteria Range Igeo criteria Range EF criteria Range
Clean (safe) NIPI<0.7 No pollution Igeo<0.0 No enrichment EF≤1
Still clean (cautionary) 0.7≤NIPI<1.0 No pollution-medium pollution 0.0≤Igeo<1.0 Slight enrichment 1<EF≤2
Mildly contaminated 1.0≤NIPI<2.0 Medium pollution 1.0≤Igeo<2.0 Moderate enrichment 2<EF≤5
Moderately contaminated 2.0≤NIPI<3.0 Medium pollution-strong pollution 2.0≤Igeo<3.0 Significant enrichment 5<EF≤20
Heavily contaminated NIPI≥3.0 Strong pollution 3.0≤Igeo<4.0 Strong enrichment 20<EF≤40
Strong pollution-very strong pollution 4.0≤Igeo<5.0 Very strong enrichment EF40
Very strong pollution Igeo≥5.0
Table 3 Nemerow integrated pollution index (NIPI), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), and enrichment factor (EF) classification criteria
Criteria RI range Ei r range
Low risk RI<150 Ei r<40
Moderate risk 150≤RI<300 40≤Ei r<80
Elevated risk 300≤RI<600 80≤Ei r<160
High risk RI≥600 160≤Ei r<320
Very high risk - Ei r320
Table 4 Integrated potential ecological hazard index (RI) and potential ecological risk index of the ith HM (Ei r) classification criteria
Parameter Unit Adults Children Reference
Ring (ingestion) mg/d 100 200 Liu et al. (2023)
Rinh (inhalation rate) m3/d 14.5 7.5
EF' (exposure frequency) d/a 350
BW (body weight) kg 56.8 15.9
ED (exposure duration) a 24 6
AT (averaging time) (non-carcinogenic) d 8760 2190 Liu et al. (2023)
AT (averaging time) (carcinogenic) 25,550
PEF (particulate emission factor) m3/kg 1.36×109 Liu et al. (2023)
Zhou et al. (2024)
AF (adherence factor) mg/cm2 0.07 0.2
SA (skin surface area) cm2 5075 2448
ABS (absorption factor) 0.001 Yang et al. (2019);
Wu et al. (2023)
Zhou et al. (2024)
ABS (absorption factor) (As) 0.030
Table S2 Health risk assessment model parameters
Element RfD SF Reference
Ring
(mg/d)		 Rinh
(m3/d)		 Dermal
(mg/cm2)		 Ring
 Rinh Dermal
Cd 1.00×10‒3 1.00×10‒5 1.00×10‒5 6.10×100 6.30×100 2.00×101 Yang et al. (2019)
Cr 3.00×10‒3 2.86×10‒5 6.00×10‒5 5.00×10‒1 4.20×101 2.00×101 Liu et al. (2023)
Cu 4.00×10‒2 4.02×10‒2 1.20×10‒2 - - - Liu et al. (2023)
Mn 4.60×10‒2 - 1.84×10‒3 - - - Liu et al. (2023)
Ni 2.00×10‒2 9.00×10‒5 5.40×10‒3 1.70×100 8.40×10‒1 4.25×101 Liu et al. (2023)
Pb 3.50×10‒3 3.52×10‒3 5.25×10‒4 8.50×10‒3 4.20×10‒2 - Zhou et al. (2024)
Zn 3.00×10‒1 3.00×10‒1 6.00×10‒2 - - - Zhou et al. (2024)
As 3.00×10‒4 1.23×10‒4 1.23×10‒4 1.50×100 1.51×101 3.66×100 Zhou et al. (2024)
Table S3 Daily reference doses (RfD) and carcinogenicity slope factor (SF) for heavy metals (HMs)
Item Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn As
(mg/kg)
Maximum 1.24 183.89 123.25 46,177.88 2208.25 79.81 40.84 171.81 25.91
Minimum 0.05 26.21 15.31 7882.65 163.61 6.63 0.72 34.18 0.90
Mean 0.18 58.32 45.67 26,876.42 752.60 26.99 13.17 89.02 11.06
Median 0.13 56.86 43.81 27,019.23 749.25 27.18 12.38 89.75 10.61
SD 0.16 19.34 17.89 5746.04 337.03 8.91 8.89 21.83 4.78
SE 0.02 2.48 2.29 735.70 43.15 1.14 1.14 2.79 0.61
CV (%) 90.40 33.17 39.18 21.45 44.78 33.03 67.54 24.52 43.20
Kurtosis 29.70 29.92 4.99 3.24 4.47 20.44 0.56 2.73 0.81
Skewness 4.97 4.52 1.48 -0.32 1.16 3.19 0.84 0.61 0.52
Local background value 0.13 73.65 34.51 30,650.63 654.79 32.12 8.34 88.86 10.58
Xinjiang background valuea 0.12 49.30 26.70 27,800.00 666.00 26.60 19.40 68.80 11.20
Chinese soil criteria (Grade 2)b 65.00 - 18,000.00 - - 900.00 800.00 - 60.00
Industrial areas of Chinac 23.77 100.19 - - - - 707.16 - 155.78
Table 5 Soil HM concentration in the study area
Sample Longitude Latitude Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn As
(mg/kg)
A 87°50′35″E 42°49′27″N 0.12 78.43 32.11 31,838.24 679.90 32.84 12.99 88.24 8.92
B 87°32′15″E 42°51′39″N 0.12 77.48 28.71 34,603.96 574.75 32.92 6.68 85.40 8.02
C 87°38′28″E 42°50′28″N 0.14 65.05 42.72 25,509.71 709.71 30.58 5.34 92.96 14.81
Mean 0.13 73.65 34.51 30,650.63 654.79 32.12 8.34 88.86 10.58
Table S4 Three HM concentrations in soil samples from the vicinity of the Alagou reservoir
Fig. 2 Spatial distribution of concentrations of nine HMs. (a), Cd (cadmium); (b), Cr (chromium); (c), Cu (copper); (d), Fe (ferrum); (e), Mn (manganese); (f), Ni (nickel); (g), Pb (plumbum); (h), Zn (zinc); (i), As (arsenic).
Fig. 3 Multivariate statistical analysis and PMF (positive matrix factorization) model analysis results of nine HMs (heavy metals.) (a), EFA (exploratory factor analysis); (b), correlation analysis between HMs; (c), contributions of nine HMs to Factor 1; (d), spatial contribution distribution of Factor 1; (e), contributions of nine HMs to Factor 2; (f), spatial contribution distribution of Factor 2; (g), contributions of nine HMs to Factor 3; (h), spatial contribution distribution of Factor 3; (i), contributions of nine HMs to Factor 4; (j), spatial contribution distribution of Factor 4. *, P<0.050 level; **, P<0.010 level.
Fig. 4 Pollution index assessment results. (a), NIPI (Nemerow integrated pollution index); (b), Igeo (geoaccumulation index); (c1-c9), EF (enrichment factor); (d), Er (potential ecological risk index); (e), RI (integrated potential ecological risk index). In Figure 4b and d, boxes indicate the IQR (interquartile range, 75th to 25th of the data). The median value is shown as a line within the box. Black triangle is shown as mean. Whiskers extend to the most extreme value within 1.5×IQR.
Group HMs NCR CR
NCRing NCRinh NCRder TNCR CRing CRinh CRder TCR
Adults Cd 4.35×100 4.63×10‒2 3.04×10‒4 4.39×100 9.09×10‒3 1.00×10‒6 2.09×10‒8 9.09×10‒3
Cr 5.44×10‒2 6.08×10‒4 1.90×10‒6 5.50×10‒2 2.80×10‒5 2.50×10‒7 7.83×10‒10 2.82×10‒5
Cu 1.70×10‒2 1.81×10‒6 3.97×10‒8 1.70×10‒2 - - - -
Mn 2.57×10‒3 - 4.50×10‒8 2.57×10‒3 - - - -
Ni 2.16×10‒2 5.12×10‒4 5.60×10‒8 2.21×10‒2 2.52×10‒4 1.33×10‒8 4.41×10‒9 2.52×10‒4
Pb 2.32×10‒1 2.46×10‒5 1.08×10‒6 2.32×10‒1 2.37×10‒6 1.25×10‒9 - 2.37×10‒6
Zn 3.44×10‒4 3.67×10‒8 1.20×10‒9 3.44×10‒4 - - - -
As 4.44×10‒1 1.16×10‒4 2.28×10‒5 4.44×10‒1 6.85×10‒5 7.36×10‒8 3.51×10‒9 6.86×10‒5
Children Cd 3.10×101 8.56×10‒2 3.10×10‒3 3.11×101 1.62×10‒2 4.62×10‒7 5.32×10‒8 1.62×10‒2
Cr 3.88×10‒1 1.12×10‒3 1.94×10‒5 3.90×10‒1 4.99×10‒5 1.16×10‒7 2.00×10‒9 5.01×10‒5
Cu 1.22×10‒1 3.34×10‒6 4.06×10‒7 1.22×10‒1 - - - -
Mn 1.84×10‒2 - 4.60×10‒7 1.84×10‒2 - - - -
Ni 1.54×10‒1 9.46×10‒4 5.72×10‒7 1.55×10‒1 4.50×10‒4 6.13×10‒9 1.13×10‒8 4.50×10‒4
Pb 1.66×100 4.55×10‒5 1.11×10‒5 1.66×100 4.23×10‒6 5.77×10‒10 - 4.23×10‒6
Zn 2.46×10‒3 6.77×10‒8 1.23×10‒8 2.46×10‒3 - - - -
As 3.17×100 2.13×10‒4 2.32×10‒4 3.17×100 1.22×10‒4 3.40×10‒8 8.96×10‒9 1.22×10‒4
Table 6 Conventional health risk assessment result
Element Unit Distribution Reference
Adults Children
Cd mg/kg Triangular (0.05, 0.12, 1.24) This study
Cr mg/kg Triangular (26.21, 55.8, 183.89)
Cu mg/kg Normal (45.67±17.89)
Mn mg/kg Normal (752.60±337.03)
Ni mg/kg Triangular (6.63, 28.47, 79.81)
Pb mg/kg Normal (13.17±8.90)
Zn mg/kg Normal (89.02±21.83)
As mg/kg Normal (11.06±4.78)
Ring mg/d Triangular (4, 30, 52) Triangular (66, 103, 161) Wu et al. (2023)
Rinh m3/d Point (14.5) Point (7.5) Liu et al. (2023)
EF d/a Triangular (180, 345, 365) Triangular (180, 345, 365) Zhou et al. (2024)
ED years Point (24) Point (6) Wu et al. (2023)
BW kg Point (56.8) Point (15.9) Liu et al. (2023)
AT (Non-carcinogenic) d Point (8760) Point (2190) Liu et al. (2023)
Zhou et al. (2024)
AT (Carcinogenic) Point (25,550)
PEF m3/kg Point (1.36×109) Zhou et al. (2024)
AF mg/cm2 Point (0.07) Point (0.20) Wu et al. (2023)
SA cm2 Point (5075) Point (2448) Zhou et al. (2024)
ABS Point (0.001) Wu et al. (2023)
ABS (As) Point (0.030)
Table S5 Distribution pattern of each parameter in Monte Carlo simulation
Fig. 5 Results of health risk assessment based on Monte Carlo simulation and PMF model. (a), total NCR (non-carcinogenic risk) result based on Monte Carlo simulation; (b), total CR (carcinogenic risk) result based on Monte Carlo simulation; (c), total NCR result based on PMF model; (d), total CR result based on PMF model. Dashed line in Figure 5a and b indicates the mean value.
Fig. S1 NCR (non-carcinogenic risk) of eight HMs (heavy metals) based on Monte Carlo simulation. (a), Cd; (b), Cr; (c), Cu; (d), Mn; (e), Ni; (f), Pb; (g), Zn; (h), As. Dashed line indicates the mean value.
Fig. S2 CR (carcinogenic risk) of five HMs based on Monte Carlo simulation. (a), Cd; (b), Cr; (c), Ni; (d), Pb; (e), As. Dashed line indicates the mean value.
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