Please wait a minute...
Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2025, Vol. 17 Issue (6): 715-734    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-025-0053-3     CSTR: 32276.14.JAL.02500533
Review article     
Properties, challenges, and opportunities of the loess plains in the northern Negev Desert: A review
Ilan STAVI1,2,*(), Gal KAGAN3, Sivan ISAACSON3
1Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Yotvata 88820, Israel
2Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Eilat Campus, Eilat 88100, Israel
3Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Masada 86910, Israel
Download: HTML     PDF(1558KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)      

Abstract  

The loess plains cover approximately 2000.00 km2 of the northern Negev Desert, accounting for about 9% of Israel's total land area. As elsewhere, the loess in the Negev Desert is composed of wind-transported dust and sand particles that have been deposited in sink sites. The loess deposits are characteristically covered by biocrusts, which constitute a substantial share of the region's primary productivity. The biocrusts regulate the vascular vegetation communities, including herbaceous and woody plants, many of which are endemic and/or endangered plant species. Throughout history, the region's main land-uses have been based on extensive livestock grazing and runoff-harvesting agriculture, which both still exist to some extent. These land-uses did not challenge the sustainability of the geo-ecosystems over centuries and millennia. At present, predominant land-uses include intensive rangelands (1016.81 km2, encompassing 51% of the loess plains' area), croplands (encompassing both rainfed and irrigated cropping systems: 930.92 km2, 47% of the loess plains' area), and afforestation lands (158.75 km2). These current land-uses impose substantial challenges to the functioning of the loess plains. Further, urban and rural settlements have expanded considerably in the last decades (158.45 km2), accompanied by mass construction of infrastructures. Altogether, these new land-uses have caused widespread soil erosion, soil structure deformation, depletion of soil organic carbon, environmental contamination, native vegetation removal, invasion of plant species, and habitat fragmentation. Recent climate change has intensified these stressors, exacerbating adverse impacts and forming feedback loops that intensify land degradation and desertification. The declining ecosystem functioning over recent decades emphasizes the urgent need for passive and active restoration schemes. While some of these efforts have proven to be successful, other have failed. Therefore, proactive policy making and environmental legislation are needed to plan and develop schemes aimed at halting land degradation, while simultaneously maximizing nature conservation and restoration of degraded lands across the loess plains. Such actions are expected to increase the regions' capacity for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Key words： biocrusts      climate change      desertification      land degradation      land-use and land-use change (LULUC)      loess plains      Negev Desert     
Received: 16 December 2024      Published: 30 June 2025
Corresponding Authors: *Ilan STAVI (E-mail: istavi@adssc.org)
Service
E-mail this article
Add to my bookshelf
Add to citation manager
E-mail Alert
RSS
Articles by authors
Ilan STAVI
Gal KAGAN
Sivan ISAACSON
Cite this article:

Ilan STAVI, Gal KAGAN, Sivan ISAACSON. Properties, challenges, and opportunities of the loess plains in the northern Negev Desert: A review. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(6): 715-734.

URL:

http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-025-0053-3     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2025/V17/I6/715

Fig. 1 Overview of the study area
Fig. 2 Distribution of rangelands (a), afforestation lands (b), and croplands (c) across the loess plains. These figures were produced based on open data obtained from https://deshe.org.il.
Fig. 3 Distribution of settlements (a), quarries (b), and nature reserves and parks (c) across the loess plains. Figure 3a and b was produced based on open data obtained from https://deshe.org.il and Figure 3c was produced based on open data obtained from https://en.parks.org.il.
Fig. 4 Fencing as a passive restoration means of shrublands in the western Negev Desert (a and b), and afforestation systems as active restoration means relying on runoff harvesting systems such as contour bench terraces and limans in the northern Be'er Sheva Valley (c and d)
Fig. 5 A schematic diagram of the interrelations among challenges, policy making, and opportunities, and their interactions with climate change. LULUC, land-use and land-use change.
[1]   Amanuel W, Tesfaye M, Worku A, et al. 2019. The role of dry land forests for climate change adaptation: the case of Liben Woreda, Southern Oromia, Ethiopia. Journal of Ecology and Environment, 43(1): 11, doi: 10.1186/s41610-019-0109-4.
[2]   Argaman E, Barth R, Moshe Y, et al. 2020. Long-term effects of climatic and hydrological variation on natural vegetation production and characteristics in a semiarid watershed: the northern Negev, Israel. Science of the Total Environment, 747: 141146, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141146.
[3]   Ashkenazi E, Avni Y, Chen Y. 2020. The vitality of fruit trees in ancient Bedouin orchards in the Arid Negev Highlands (Israel): Implications of climatic change and environmental stability. Quaternary International, 545: 73-86.
[4]   Avni G, Porat N, Avni Y. 2013. Byzantine-Early Islamic agricultural systems in the Negev Highlands: Stages of development as interpreted through OSL dating. Journal of Field Archaeology, 38(4): 332-346.
[5]   Avni Y, Porat N, Plakht J, et al. 2006. Geomorphic changes leading to natural desertification versus anthropogenic land conservation in an arid environment, the Negev Highlands, Israel. Geomorphology, 82(3-4): 177-200.
[6]   Avni Y, Porat N, Faershtein G, et al. 2015. Negev Highlands north of Mitzpe Ramon; Loess deposits in drainage basins, fluvial terraces and colluvial aprons; Deposition, erosion and anthropogenic usage for ancient desert agriculture. In: CrouviO, EnzelY, Ben-DorY, et al. Atmospheric Dust, Dust Deposits (Loess) and Soils in the Negev Desert. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel, 124-153.
[7]   Bailey C. 2006. Relations between Bedouin tribes on opposite sides of the Wadi Arabah, 1600-1950. In:Bienkowski P, Galor K. Crossing the Rift, Resources, Routs, Settlement Patterns and Interaction in the Wadi Arabah (Levant Supplementary Series 3). Oxford: Oxbow Books, 251-258.
[8]   Ben-Israel A, Ramon U, Rotem G. 2012. The expansion of agriculture in the sands of the western Negev and its ecological implications. Ecology and Environment, 3: 97-102. (in Hebrew)
[9]   Ben-Moshe N, Renan I. State of Nature Report 2022: Trends and Threats. Hamaarag: Israel's National Ecosystem Assessment Program. Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
[10]   Benzioni A, Mills D, van Boven M, et al. 2005. Effect of genotype and environment on the concentration of simmondsin and its derivatives in jojoba seeds and foliage. Industrial Crops and Products, 21(2): 241-249.
[11]   Bonfil D, Ben-David R, Distelfeld A, et al. 2018. Improving crop yield of Israeli wheat and ensuring its quality under climatic fluctuations. In: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Office of the Chief Scientist. Technical Report Note 20-10-0066. Rishon LeZion, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[12]   Bonfil D J, Mufradi I, Klitman S, et al. 1999. Wheat grain yield and soil profile water distribution in a no-till arid environment. Agronomy Journal, 91(3): 368-373.
[13]   Börker J, Hartmann J, Amann T, et al. 2020. Chemical weathering of loess and its contribution to global alkalinity fluxes to the coastal zone during the Last Glacial Maximum, Mid‐Holocene, and present. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 21(7): e2020GC008922, doi: 10.1029/2020GC008922.
[14]   Brand D, Moshe I, Shachak M. 2015. Ecological restoration of desertified ecosystems in the northern Negev. [2024-05-01].https://www.kkl.org.il/files/Accessible-1/afforestation_and_environment/afforestation_and_environment_environmental_quality/environmental_quality_combating_desertification/kkl-north-negev-position-paper.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[15]   Bruins H J. 2012. Ancient desert agriculture in the Negev and climate-zone boundary changes during average, wet and drought years. Journal of Arid Environments, 86: 28-42.
[16]   Bruins H J, van der Plicht J. 2017. Dating of Iron Age agriculture in the Negev Highlands: a response to Shahack-gross and Finkelstein. Radiocarbon, 59(4): 1233-1239.
[17]   Cohen A, Keshet N, Harel Y. 2012. Pollution spread from the Ramat Hovav industrial zone to the nearby wadis—Evaluation of monitoring results for the years 1998-2011. Ecology and Environment, 3: 16-18. (in Hebrew)
[18]   Coppus R. 2023. The global distribution of human-induced land degradation and areas at risk. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Technical Report Note SOLAW21. Rome, Italy.
[19]   Cowie J D. 1964. Loess in the Manawatu district, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 7(2): 389-396.
[20]   Crouvi O, Amit R, Enzel Y, et al. 2008. Sand dunes as a major proximal dust source for late Pleistocene loess in the Negev Desert, Israel. Quaternary Research, 70(2): 275-282.
[21]   Crouvi O, Amit R, Porat N, et al. 2009. Significance of primary hilltop loess in reconstructing dust chronology, accretion rates, and sources: An example from the Negev Desert, Israel. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114(F2): F02017, doi: 10.1029/2008JF001083.
[22]   Crouvi O, Amit R, Enzel Y, et al. 2010. Active sand seas and the formation of desert loess. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29(17-18): 2087-2098.
[23]   Dan J. 1984. Soils of Israel and their relations to the native vegetation. In: WaiselY, AlonA. Vegetation of Israel. Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel, Vol. 8 Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence Publishing House, 262. (in Hebrew)
[24]   De Giacomo U, Guerrieri G. 2008. The feeding behavior of the black kite (Milvus migrans) in the rubbish dump of Rome. Journal of Raptor Research, 42(2): 110-118.
[25]   de Guevara M L, Maestre F T. 2022. Ecology and responses to climate change of biocrust-forming mosses in drylands. Journal of Experimental Botany, 73(13): 4380-4395.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/erac183 pmid: 35553672
[26]   Degen A A. 2007. Traditional livestock production among Bedouin in the Negev Desert. In: DanaL P, AndersonR B. International Handbook of Research on Indigenous Entrepreneurship. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 115-136.
[27]   Deitch M J, Sapundjieff M J, Feirer S T. 2017. Characterizing precipitation variability and trends in the world's Mediterranean-climate areas. Water, 9(4): 259, doi: 10.3390/w9040259.
[28]   Dou W Q, Xiao B, Wang Y F, et al. 2022. Contributions of three types of biocrusts to soil carbon stock and annual efflux in a small watershed of northern Chinese Loess Plateau. Applied Soil Ecology, 179: 104596, doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2022.104596.
[29]   Drori R, Ziv B, Saaroni H, et al. 2021. Recent changes in the rain regime over the Mediterranean climate region of Israel. Climatic Change, 167(1-2): 15, doi: 10.1007/s10584-021-03161-6.
[30]   Dubinin M, Osem Y, Yakir D, et al. 2024. Investigating the relationships between the leaf area index and forest functions of dryland conifer forests along an aridity gradient using VENµS and Sentinel-2 satellites. EGU23-12505. 24 April-28 April, 2023. EGU General Assembly 2023. Vienna, Austria.
[31]   Efron D, Nestel D, Glazer I. 2001. Spatial analysis of entomopathogenic nematodes and insect hosts in a citrus grove in a semi-arid region in Israel. Environmental Entomology, 30(2): 254-261.
[32]   Eldridge D J, Zaady E, Shachak M. 2000. Infiltration through three contrasting biological soil crusts in patterned landscapes in the Negev, Israel. CATENA, 40(3): 323-336.
[33]   Eldridge D J, Squires V R. 2002. Estimating pastoral productivity of semiarid rangeland in northern Shaanxi Province, China, using an environmental resource assessment and management system. Arid Land Research and Management, 16(1): 37-45.
[34]   Eliyahu A. 2019. Regulating the waste sector in Arab, Druz, and Bedouin villages. [2024-05-01].https://fs.knesset.gov.il/globaldocs/MMM/6464a7ae-07fb-e911-8102-00155d0aee38/2_6464a7ae-07fb-e911-8102-00155d0aee38_11_13648.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[35]   Evenari M, Shanan L, Tadmor N, et al. 1961. Ancient agriculture in the Negev. Science, 133(3457): 979-996.
pmid: 17743789
[36]   Evenari M, Shanan L, Tadmor N. 1982. The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert (2nd ed). Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press, 1-437.
[37]   Farrell H L, Fehmi J F, Gornish E S. 2021. The effects of site preparation equal those of seeding at a dryland restoration site: 6 years of plant community development. Restoration Ecology, 29(6): e13482, doi: 10.1111/rec.13482.
[38]   Fick S E, Barger N, Tatarko J, et al. 2020. Induced biological soil crust controls on wind erodibility and dust (PM10) emissions. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 45(1): 224-236.
[39]   Field J P, Belnap J, Breshears D D, et al. 2010. The ecology of dust. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 8(8): 423-430.
[40]   Finke P A, Vanwalleghem T, Opolot E, et al. 2013. Estimating the effect of tree uprooting on variation of soil horizon depth by confronting pedogenetic simulations to measurements in a Belgian loess area. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 118(4): 2124-2139.
[41]   Gao L Q, Sun H, Xu M X, et al. 2020. Biocrusts resist runoff erosion through direct physical protection and indirect modification of soil properties. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 20(1): 133-142.
[42]   Gil H, Ben-Natan D, Perelberg A. 2022. Plants survey in proposed nature reserve across the northern Negev. Deshe Institute. Tel Aviv, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[43]   Givon B. 2012. Ramat Hovav-Industrial Council. Mekarkein, 11: 1-15. (in Hebrew)
[44]   Golan O, Attias R, Elron M, et al. 2022. The effect of bark beetles in the mortality of planted pine forests in Israel. Ya'ar, 22: 71-81. (in Hebrew)
[45]   Golodets C, Sternberg M, Kigel J, et al. 2015. Climate change scenarios of herbaceous production along an aridity gradient: vulnerability increases with aridity. Oecologia, 177(4): 971-979.
doi: 10.1007/s00442-015-3234-5 pmid: 25663330
[46]   Grab H, Danforth B, Poveda K, et al. 2018. Landscape simplification reduces classical biological control and crop yield. Ecological Applications, 28(2): 348-355.
doi: 10.1002/eap.1651 pmid: 29345735
[47]   Granatstein D. 1992. Dryland farming in the northwestern United States: A nontechnical overview. MISC0162. Washington State University Cooperative Extension. Pullman, USA, 1-31.
[48]   Guo M M, Wang W L, Kang H L, et al. 2020. Changes in soil properties and resistance to concentrated flow across a 25-year passive restoration chronosequence of grasslands on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Restoration Ecology, 28(1): 104-114.
[49]   Han J Q, Ge W Y, Hei Z, et al. 2020. Agricultural land use and management weaken the soil erosion induced by extreme rainstorms. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 301: 107047, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2020.107047.
[50]   Hatzbani A, Atlan Y. 2020. Roadmap for future industrial development in the Negev. [2024-05-13].https://www.negevcouncil.org. (in Hebrew)
[51]   Ibáñez J J, Zuccarello V, Ganis P, et al. 2014. Pedodiversity deserves attention in plant biodiversity research. Plant Biosystems, 148(6): 1112-1116.
[52]   Jones J A, Swanson F J, Wemple B C, et al. 2000. Effects of roads on hydrology, geomorphology, and disturbance patches in stream networks. Conservation Biology, 14(1): 76-85.
[53]   Kababya D. 2022. The small ruminants sector in Israel. Israel Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Department of Extension Service. Rishon LeZion, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[54]   Kafle H K, Bruins H J. 2009. Climatic trends in Israel 1970-2002: warmer and increasing aridity inland. Climatic Change, 96(1-2): 63-77.
[55]   Kashyap R, Grover S, Puri H, et al. 2023. Insect and pest management for sustaining crop production under changing climatic patterns of drylands. In: NaoremA, MachiwalD.Enhancing Resilience of Dryland Agriculture Under Changing Climate. Berlin: Springer, 441-457.
[56]   Katuri J R, Trifonov P, Arye G. 2019. Spatial distribution of salinity and sodicity in arid climate following long term brackish water drip irrigated olive orchard. Water, 11(12): 2556, doi: 10.3390/w11122556.
[57]   Kidron G J, Fischer T, Xiao B. 2022. The ambivalent effect of biocrusts on evaporation: Can the contradictory conclusions be explained? A review. Geoderma, 416: 115805, doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2022.115805.
[58]   Kirmer A, Baasch A, Tischew S. 2012. Sowing of low and high diversity seed mixtures in ecological restoration of surface mined-land. Applied Vegetation Science, 15(2): 198-207.
[59]   Kobel M, Listopad C M C S, Príncipe A, et al. 2021. Temporary grazing exclusion as a passive restoration strategy in a dryland woodland: Effects over time on tree regeneration and on the shrub community. Forest Ecology and Management, 483: 118732, doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118732.
[60]   Landau Y, Abu Rabia A, Abelgon D, et al. 2015. Seasonal grazing of Bedouin flocks in the KKL forests: Trends between 2009 and 2014. Ya'ar, 15: 30-39. (in Hebrew)
[61]   Lavee H, Poesen J, Yair A. 1997. Evidence of high efficiency water-harvesting by ancient farmers in the Negev Desert, Israel. Journal of Arid Environments, 35(2): 341-348.
[62]   Leu S, Ben-Eli M, Mor-Mussery A. 2021. Effects of grazing control on ecosystem recovery, biological productivity gains, and soil carbon sequestration in long-term degraded loess farmlands in the Northern Negev, Israel. Land Degradation & Development, 32(8): 2580-2594.
[63]   Li J, Li Z B, Guo M J, et al. 2018. Effects of vegetation restoration on soil physical properties of abandoned farmland on the Loess Plateau, China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77(5): 205, doi: 10.1007/s12665-018-7385-7.
[64]   Li R, Wang C, Zhao Y, et al. 2016. Rapid restoration of moss biocrusts on field slope under spray-seeding and broadcasting. In: Third International Workshop on Biological Soil Crusts. 26 September-30 September, 2016. Moab, USA.
[65]   Li Y R, He S D, Peng J B, et al. 2020a. Loess geology and surface processes: An introductory note. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 200: 104477, doi: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104477.
[66]   Li Y R, Shi W H, Aydin A, et al. 2020b. Loess genesis and worldwide distribution. Earth-Science Reviews, 201: 102947, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102947.
[67]   Lomas J. 1984. Efficient utilization of climate resources for rainfed agriculture in Israel. Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, 131(2-4): 501-515.
[68]   Maestre F T, Benito B M, Berdugo M, et al. 2021. Biogeography of global drylands. New Phytologist, 231(2): 540-558.
doi: 10.1111/nph.17395 pmid: 33864276
[69]   Maggioli L, Rodríguez-Caballero E, Cantón Y, et al. 2022. Design optimization of biocrust-plant spatial configuration for dry ecosystem restoration using water redistribution and erosion models. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 10: 765148, doi: 10.3389/fevo.2022.765148.
[70]   Marx E, Meir A. 2005. Land, towns and planning: The Negev Bedouin and the state of Israel. Geography Research Forum, 25: 43-61.
[71]   Meehan M, Sedivec K K, Printz J, et al. 2018. Determining carrying capacity and stocking rates. [2024-05-01].https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-10/Determining%20Carry%20Capacity%20and%20Stocking%20Rates%20_ND.pdf.
[72]   Meshesha D T, Moahmmed M, Yosuf D. 2019. Estimating carrying capacity and stocking rates of rangelands in Harshin District, Eastern Somali Region, Ethiopia. Ecology and Evolution, 9(23): 13309-13319.
doi: 10.1002/ece3.5786
[73]   Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. 2023. Supporting livestock owners among the Bedouin community of the Negev for improving herds' management—Application criteria and procedures in 2023. [2024-05-10].https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/rfp/improvinginterfacesheepbedouincommunitynegev2023/he/improvinginterfacesheepbedouincommunitynegev2023.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[74]   Ministry of Environmental Protection. 2017. Israel preparations to climatic change adaptation—Recommendations, strategic, and national action plan for the government. [2024-05-10].https://fs.knesset.gov.il/20/Committees/20_cs_bg_501919.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[75]   Muhs D R. 2007. Loess Deposits, Origins and Properties. Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1405-1418.
[76]   Natan G. 2008. The camel raising sector in the Negev. [2024-05-10].https://fs.knesset.gov.il/globaldocs/MMM/b3566b58-e9f7-e411-80c8-00155d010977/2_b3566b58-e9f7-e411-80c8-00155d010977_11_9239.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[77]   Neely C, Bunning S, Wilkes A. 2009. Review of evidence on drylands pastoral systems and climate change: Implications and opportunities for mitigation and adaptation. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1-33.
[78]   Neot H. 2021. Commercial local Council Neot Hovav-Request for strategic counseling and economic planning. Commercial Local Council Neot Hovav. Neot Hovav, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[79]   Olsson L H, Barbosa S, Bhadwal A, et al. 2019. Land degradation. In: ShuklaP R, SkeaJ, CalvoBuendia E, et al. Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems. [2024-05-13]. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157988.006.
[80]   Perelberg A, Ron M. 2014. The loess plains of the northern Negev—An endangered ecosystem. Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. Tel Avi, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[81]   Planning Administration. 2014. TAMA 14/C—National plan for quarrying and extraction of industrial minerals. [2024-05-13].https://www.adalah.org/uploads/uploads/TamaC14_policy_Al_Fura_phosphate_mine.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[82]   Portnov B A, Safriel U N. 2004. Combating desertification in the Negev: dryland agriculture vs. dryland urbanization. Journal of Arid Environments, 56(4): 659-680.
[83]   Pozner E, Bar-On P, Livne-Luzon S, et al. 2022. A hidden mechanism of forest loss under climate change: The role of drought in eliminating forest regeneration at the edge of its distribution. Forest Ecology and Management, 506: 119966, doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119966.
[84]   Preisler Y, Tatarinov F, Grünzweig J M, et al. 2019. Mortality versus survival in drought‐affected Aleppo pine forest depends on the extent of rock cover and soil stoniness. Functional Ecology, 33(5): 901-912.
doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.13302
[85]   Pringle H J R, Landsberg J. 2004. Predicting the distribution of livestock grazing pressure in rangelands. Austral Ecology, 29(1): 31-39.
[86]   Qiu D X, Xiao B, Ghanbarian B. 2024. Biocrusts intensify grassland evapotranspiration through increasing evaporation and reducing transpiration in a semi-arid ecosystem. Journal of Hydrology, 639: 131653, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131653.
[87]   Qiu W H, Liu J S, Li B Y, et al. 2020. N2O and CO2 emissions from a dryland wheat cropping system with long-term N fertilization and their relationships with soil C, N, and bacterial community. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(8): 8673-8683.
[88]   Rabaca J E, Ventura T, Faria N, et al. 2021. Foraging in landfills: Feeding behavior of the white stork (Ciconia ciconia) and kleptoparasitism by black kites (Milvus migrans). Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 132(3): 513-521.
[89]   Rafaeli O, Nahlieli A, Svoray T. 2023. Dynamics of subsurface soil erosion in a semiarid region: A time-series study of sinkhole area and morphology. CATENA, 233: 107511, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2023.107511.
[90]   Raveh-Amit H, Gruber A, Abramov K, et al. 2024. Mitigation of aeolian erosion of loess soil by bio-stimulated microbial induced calcite precipitation. CATENA, 237: 107808, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2024.107808.
[91]   Riechers M, Balázsi A, Betz L, et al. 2020. The erosion of relational values resulting from landscape simplification. Landscape Ecology, 35(11): 2601-2612.
[92]   Ritz Finkelstein A. 2014. The nature of the Negev—Assessing a national experiment in drylands afforestation. [2024-05-01].https://web.mit.edu/nature/projects_14/pdfs/2014-Negev-Finkelstein.pdf.
[93]   Rognon P, Coude-Gaussen G, Fedoroff N, et al. 1987. Micromorphology of loess in the northern Negev (Israel). In: FedoroffN, BressonM A. Micromorphologiedes Sols—Soil Micromorphology. International Conference on Micromorphology of Soils. 20 July-28 July, 1987. Montpellier, France.
[94]   Rohatyn S, Rotenberg E, Tatarinov F, et al. 2023. Large variations in afforestation-related climate cooling and warming effects across short distances. Communications Earth & Environment, 4(1): 18, doi: 10.1038/s43247-023-00678-9.
[95]   Rosen S A. 2019. Trade through the desert: A long-term perspective on goods, animals, and polities in the Negev. Chungara Revista de Antropología Chilena, 51(1): 71-84.
[96]   Rosen-Zvi I. 2007. Who owns this waste? Waste disposal and environmental justice in Israel. Judiciary Studies, 23: 1-72. (in Hebrew)
[97]   Rotem G, Buskila A, Rothschild A. 2013. Ecological effects of forestry in the northern Negev and Mount Hebron. Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. Tel Aviv, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[98]   Rotem G, Oren U, Romem E, et al. 2017. The northern Negev, with a focus on the loess plains. Deshe Institute, Tel Aviv, Israel. [2024-05-01].https://deshe.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/LoessForSite.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[99]   Ruhe R V. 1969. Application of pedology to Quaternary research. In: PawlukS. Pedologyand Quaternary Research. Edmonton: University of Alberta, 1-23.
[100]   Saaroni H, Ziv B, Pergament R, et al. 2012. Precipitation fluctuations in the Negev over the last 50 years—Indication for climatic change? Ecology and Environment, 3: 62-71. (in Hebrew)
[101]   Schultz N L, Sluiter I R K, Allen G G, et al. 2022. Biocrust amendments to topsoils facilitate biocrust restoration in a post-mining arid environment. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13: 882673, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.882673.
[102]   Shalom O, Crouvi O, Enzel Y, et al. 2020. Locally recycled late Pleistocene loess feeds modern dust storms at the desert margins of the eastern Mediterranean, Israel. Aeolian Research, 46: 100612, doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2020.100612.
[103]   Shapiro M B. 2006. Soils of Israel. Eurasian Soil Science, 39(11): 1170-1175.
[104]   Shikma-Besor Drainage Authority. 2018. Masterplan for restoration and development of Nahal Besor. [2024-05-13].https://besor.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A7-%D7%92.pdf. (in Hebrew)
[105]   Shkolnik A, Maltz E, Gordin S. 1980. Desert conditions and goat milk production. Journal of Dairy Science, 63(10): 1749-1754.
[106]   Stavi I, Perevolotsky A, Avni Y. 2010. Effects of gully formation and headcut retreat on primary production in an arid rangeland: Natural desertification in action. Journal of Arid Environments, 74(2): 221-228.
[107]   Stavi I, Lal R. 2011. Variability of soil physical quality in uneroded, eroded, and depositional cropland sites. Geomorphology, 125(1): 85-91.
[108]   Stavi I, Barkai D, Islam K R, et al. 2015. No adverse effect of moderate stubble grazing on soil quality and organic carbon pool in dryland wheat agro-ecosystems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(3): 1117-1125.
[109]   Stavi I, Rachmilevitch S, Hjazin A, et al. 2018a. Geodiversity decreases shrub mortality and increases ecosystem tolerance to droughts and climate change. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43(13): 2808-2817.
[110]   Stavi I, Siegal Z, Drori B, et al. 2018b. Single session of chiseling tillage for soil and vegetation restoration in severely degraded shrublands. Water, 10(6): 755, doi: 10.3390/w10060755.
[111]   Stavi I, Gusarov Y, Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R. 2019a. Collapse and failure of ancient agricultural stone terraces: On-site geomorphic processes, pedogenic mechanisms, and soil quality. Geoderma, 344(10): 144-152.
[112]   Stavi I, Rachmilevitch S, Yizhaq H. 2019b. Geodiversity effects on soil quality and geo-ecosystem functioning in drylands. CATENA, 176: 372-380.
[113]   Stavi I, Pulido Fernández M, Argaman E. 2023. Long-term passive restoration of severely degraded drylands—divergent impacts on soil and vegetation: An Israeli case study. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 33(3): 529-546.
[114]   Stavi I, Eldad S, Xu C, et al. 2024. Ancient agricultural terrace walls control floods and regulate the distribution of Asphodelus ramosus geophytes in the Israeli arid Negev. CATENA, 234: 107588, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2023.107588.
[115]   Tal A, Gurion B. 2009. Making forestry sustainable: Recent Israeli innovations in eucalyptus farming and carbon sequestration. In: IUFRO 3.08 Small Scale Forestry Symposium Proceedings. Council for Forest Research and Development (COFORD). 18 June-23 June, 2006. Morgantown, USA.
[116]   Tal A. 2016. Rethinking the sustainability of Israel's irrigation practices in the Drylands. Water Research, 90: 387-394.
doi: S0043-1354(15)30413-9 pmid: 26771161
[117]   Tang M, Liu R, Li H C, et al. 2023. Optimizing soil moisture conservation and temperature regulation in rainfed jujube orchards of China's loess hilly areas using straw and branch mulching. Agronomy, 13(8): 2121, doi: 10.3390/agronomy13082121.
[118]   Tian C, Ju M C, Eldridge D J, et al. 2023. Exogenous microorganisms promote moss biocrust restoration and shape microbiomes in a sandy desert. Plant and Soil, 491(1-2): 421-437.
[119]   USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 1988. Challenges in dryland agriculture—A global perspective. In:Proceedings of the International Conference on Dryland Farming. 15 August-19 August, 1988. Bozeman, USA.
[120]   Vanwalleghem T, Poesen J, McBratney A, et al. 2010. Spatial variability of soil horizon depth in natural loess-derived soils. Geoderma, 157(1-2): 37-45.
[121]   Vernham G, Bailey J J, Chase J M, et al. 2023. Understanding trait diversity: the role of geodiversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 38(8): 736-745.
[122]   Veste M, Littmann T, Breckle S W, et al. 2001. The role of biological soil crusts on desert sand dunes in the northwestern Negev, Israel. In: BreckleS W, WuchererW, VesteM.Sustainable Land-Use in Deserts. Berlin: Springer, 357-367.
[123]   Weinreb A. 2021. The southern district of Israel: Socio-demographic profile. The Taub Center for Social Policy Studies. Jerusalem, Israel. (in Hebrew)
[124]   Wilson G. 1980. Limanim. Landscape Australia, 3/80: 159-163.
[125]   Yosef Y, Aguilar E, Alpert P. 2019. Changes in extreme temperature and precipitation indices: using an innovative daily homogenized database in Israel. International Journal of Climatology, 39(13): 5022-5045.
[126]   Young K E, Reed S C, Ferrenberg S, et al. 2021. Incorporating biogeochemistry into dryland restoration. Bioscience, 71(9): 907-917.
doi: 10.1093/biosci/biab043 pmid: 34483747
[127]   Zahawi R A, Reid J L, Holl K D. 2014. Hidden costs of passive restoration. Restoration Ecology, 22(3): 284-287.
[128]   Zapata D, Rajan N, Mowrer J, et al. 2021. Long-term tillage effect on with-in season variations in soil conditions and respiration from dryland winter wheat and soybean cropping systems. Scientific Reports, 11(1): 2344, doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-80979-1.
[129]   Zhang C, Liu G B, Xue S, et al. 2012. Rhizosphere soil microbial properties on abandoned croplands in the Loess Plateau, China during vegetation succession. European Journal of Soil Biology, 50: 127-136.
[130]   Zhang Q W, Wang H, Wang J. 2022. Biocrusts and subshrub development and soil water through a slope-gully system in a vegetation-restored site on the Loess Plateau of China. CATENA, 216: 106344, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2022.106344.
[131]   Zhang Y M, Aradottir A L, Serpe M, et al. 2016. Interactions of biological soil crusts with vascular plants. In: WeberB, BüdelB, BelnapJ. Biological Soil Crusts:An Organizing Principle in Drylands. Cham: Springer, 385-406.
[132]   Zheng K, Shi M J, Wu H Q, et al. 2023. Estimation and simulation of carbon sequestration in typical dryland areas of China under future climate change scenarios. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11: 1250586, doi: 10.3389/fevo.2023.1250586.
[133]   Zisman O, Kushmaro A, Brenner A. 2024. Bio-chemical treatment of landfill leachates with high load of organic and nitrogen compounds. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 5: 100061, doi: 10.1016/j.scenv.2024.100061.
[134]   Zohary M. 1980. Vegetal Landscapes of Israel. Tel Aviv, Israel: Am Oved, 1-337. (in Hebrew)
[1] LIU Huan, YAO Yuyan, AI Zemin, DANG Xiaohu, CAO Yong, LI Qingqing, HOU Mengjia, HU Haoli, ZHANG Yuanyuan, CAO Tian. Spatial and temporal evolution of forage-livestock balance in the agro-pastoral transition zone of northern China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(6): 754-771.
[2] LI Wei, WANG Yixuan, DUAN Limin, TONG Xin, WU Yingjie, ZHAO Shuixia. Non-stationary characteristics and causes of extreme precipitation in a desert steppe in Inner Mongolia, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(5): 590-604.
[3] CHAO Yan, ZHU Yonghua, WANG Xiaohan, LI Jiamin, LIANG Li'e. Dynamic evolution of the NDVI and driving factors in the Mu Us Sandy Land of China from 2002 to 2021[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(5): 605-623.
[4] LYU Leting, JIANG Ruifeng, ZHENG Defeng, LIANG Liheng. Impact of climate change and land use/cover change on water yield in the Liaohe River Basin, Northeast China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(2): 182-199.
[5] ZHANG Jing, XU Changchun, WANG Hongyu, WANG Yazhen, LONG Junchen. Runoff simulation and hydropower resource prediction of the Kaidu River Basin in the Tianshan Mountains, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(1): 1-18.
[6] PAN Meihui, CHEN Qing, LI Chenlu, LI Na, GONG Yifu. Spatiotemporal variation and influencing factors of desertification sensitivity on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(1): 58-73.
[7] LIU Yuke, HUANG Chenlu, YANG Chun, CHEN Chen. Spatiotemporal variation and driving factors of vegetation net primary productivity in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration, China from 2001 to 2020[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(1): 74-92.
[8] CHEN Zhuo, SHAO Minghao, HU Zihao, GAO Xin, LEI Jiaqiang. Potential distribution of Haloxylon ammodendron in Central Asia under climate change[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(9): 1255-1269.
[9] SUN Chao, BAI Xuelian, WANG Xinping, ZHAO Wenzhi, WEI Lemin. Response of vegetation variation to climate change and human activities in the Shiyang River Basin of China during 2001-2022[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1044-1061.
[10] YAN Yujie, CHENG Yiben, XIN Zhiming, ZHOU Junyu, ZHOU Mengyao, WANG Xiaoyu. Impacts of climate change and human activities on vegetation dynamics on the Mongolian Plateau, East Asia from 2000 to 2023[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1062-1079.
[11] YANG Jianhua, LI Yaqian, ZHOU Lei, ZHANG Zhenqing, ZHOU Hongkui, WU Jianjun. Effects of temperature and precipitation on drought trends in Xinjiang, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1098-1117.
[12] HAN Qifei, XU Wei, LI Chaofan. Effects of nitrogen deposition on the carbon budget and water stress in Central Asia under climate change[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1118-1129.
[13] SUN Hui, ZHAO Yunge, GAO Liqian, XU Mingxiang. Reasonable grazing may balance the conflict between grassland utilization and soil conservation in the semi-arid hilly areas, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1130-1146.
[14] WANG Tongxia, CHEN Fulong, LONG Aihua, ZHANG Zhengyong, HE Chaofei, LYU Tingbo, LIU Bo, HUANG Yanhao. Glacier area change and its impact on runoff in the Manas River Basin, Northwest China from 2000 to 2020[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(7): 877-894.
[15] DU Lan, TIAN Shengchuan, ZHAO Nan, ZHANG Bin, MU Xiaohan, TANG Lisong, ZHENG Xinjun, LI Yan. Climate and topography regulate the spatial pattern of soil salinization and its effects on shrub community structure in Northwest China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(7): 925-942.