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Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2021, Vol. 13 Issue (7): 653-673    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-021-0072-7
Research article     
Effect of stones on the sand saltation threshold during natural sand and dust storms in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia
Batjargal BUYANTOGTOKH1,2,*(), Yasunori KUROSAKI1, Atsushi TSUNEKAWA1, Mitsuru TSUBO1, Batdelger GANTSETSEG2, Amarsaikhan DAVAADORJ2, Masahide ISHIZUKA3, Tsuyoshi T SEKIYAMA4, Taichu Y TANAKA4, Takashi MAKI4
1Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, Tottori 680-0001, Japan
2Information and Research Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, Ulaanbaatar 15160, Mongolia
3Faculty of Engineering and Design, Kagawa University, Takamatsu 761-0396, Japan
4Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency, Tsukuba 305-0052, Japan
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Abstract  

Non-erodible elements such as stones and vegetation are key to controlling wind erosion and dust emission in drylands. Stony deserts are widely distributed in the Gobi Desert, but the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission have not been well studied, except under artificial conditions. In this study, we evaluated the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission by measuring the sand saltation threshold in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, under natural surface conditions during sand and dust storms. We quantified the amount of stones by measuring the roughness density, and determined the threshold friction velocity for sand saltation by measuring wind speed and sand saltation count. Our results showed that the threshold friction velocity increased with the roughness density of stones. In the northern part of the study area, where neither a surface crust nor vegetation was observed, the roughness density of stones was 0.000 in a topographic depression (TD), 0.050 on a northern slope (N.SL), and 0.160 on the northern mountain (N.MT). The mean threshold friction velocity values were 0.23, 0.41, and 0.57 m/s at the TD, N.SL, and N.MT sites, respectively. In the southern part of the study area, the roughness density values of stones were 0.000 and 0.070-0.320 at the TD and southern slope sites, respectively, and the mean threshold friction velocities were 0.23 and 0.45-0.71 m/s, respectively. We further compared the observed threshold friction velocities with simulated threshold friction velocities using Raupach's theoretical roughness correction and the measured roughness density values, and found that Raupach's roughness correction worked very well in the simulation of threshold friction velocity in the stony desert. This means that the results of our stone measurement can be applied to a numerical dust model.

Key words： arid region      threshold friction velocity      roughness density      shear stress      sand saltation threshold      roughness correction      Gobi Desert     
Received: 21 December 2020      Published: 10 July 2021
Corresponding Authors:
About author: *Batjargal BUYANTOGTOKH (E-mail: buya_9@yahoo.com)
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BUYANTOGTOKH Batjargal
KUROSAKI Yasunori
TSUNEKAWA Atsushi
TSUBO Mitsuru
GANTSETSEG Batdelger
DAVAADORJ Amarsaikhan
ISHIZUKA Masahide
T SEKIYAMA Tsuyoshi
Y TANAKA Taichu
MAKI Takashi
Cite this article:

Batjargal BUYANTOGTOKH, Yasunori KUROSAKI, Atsushi TSUNEKAWA, Mitsuru TSUBO, Batdelger GANTSETSEG, Amarsaikhan DAVAADORJ, Masahide ISHIZUKA, Tsuyoshi T SEKIYAMA, Taichu Y TANAKA, Takashi MAKI. Effect of stones on the sand saltation threshold during natural sand and dust storms in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(7): 653-673.

URL:

http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-021-0072-7     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2021/V13/I7/653

Fig. 1 Topographic map showing the locations of the observation sites around Tsogt-Ovoo. Stars indicate sites where observations were conducted year-round: The Main site (labeled 1; see Table 1) was established in March 2012, and sites Sub14A and Sub14B (labeled 2 and 3, respectively) were established in March 2014. Temporary observation sites are indicated by triangles. Observations were conducted during 1-5 May 2018 at sites Sub18A-Sub18D (labeled 4-7, respectively) and from 27 April to 8 May 2019 at sites Sub19A-Sub19D (labeled 8-11, respectively). Wind speed, wind direction, and sand saltation count were observed at all sites, whereas soil moisture was observed only at the year-round sites.
No. Site
name		 Geographical coordinates Type of site Observation
period		 Topographic position Surface
characteristic
1 Main 44°23′04′′N 105°16′59′′E Year-round 1-5 May 2018 N.SL Stone
27 April-8 May 2019 Stone and vegetation
2 Sub14A 44°23′37′′N 105°13′24′′E Year-round 1-5 May 2018 TD Hard crust
27 April-8 May 2019 Crust and vegetation
3 Sub14B 44°23′32′′N 105°13′12′′E Year-round 1-5 May 2018 S.SL Stone
27 April-8 May 2019 Stone and vegetation
4 Sub18A 44°22′23′′N 105°11′28′′E Temporary 1-5 May 2018 S.MT Stone
5 Sub18B 44°24′26′′N 105°14′01′′E Temporary 1-5 May 2018 N.SL Stone
6 Sub18C 44°27′32′′N 105°16′48′′E Temporary 1-5 May 2018 N.MT Stone
7 Sub18D 44°21′47′′N 105°14′51′′E Temporary 1-5 May 2018 TD Hard crust
8 Sub19A 44°21′52′′N 105°14′04′′E Temporary 27 April-8 May 2019 S.SL Stone
9 Sub19B 44°22′02′′N 105°14′27′′E Temporary 27 April-8 May 2019 S.SL Stone
10 Sub19C 44°22′29′′N 105°14′54′′E Temporary 27 April-8 May 2019 TD Sand and soft crust
11 Sub19D 44°22′39′′N 105°14′59′′E Temporary 27 April-8 May 2019 TD Sand
Table 1 Site locations and type, measurement periods, topographic positions, and surface characteristics
Fig. 2 Land surface conditions in front of the saltation count sensor at 14 observation sites. Each site name is shown at the bottom of each photo with the topographic position (MT, mountain; SL, slope; TD, topographic depression) and observation year in parentheses. The diameter of the mouth of the sand catcher was 3.1 cm, and the diameter of the sand saltation count sensor was 1.2 cm.
Fig. 3 Workflow showing the observation and model simulation of the threshold friction velocity in this study. λs is the roughness density of stones, and f(λs) is a correction functions for a roughness element.
Fig. 4 Layout of quadrats (gray rectangles) where land surface photographs were taken for stone measurement (a) and demonstration of anemometer and wind vane (b). The black dot in the left panel indicates the position of the UD-101 count sensor, which faced northwest. The UD-101 sensor was installed at the height of 0.1 m; the anemometer and wind vane were installed at the height of 1.7 m.
Fig. 5 Demonstration of image processing steps. (a), cropped image with scale; (b), the color threshold for soil that is manually set; (c), image after application of the threshold for stones and the ''Fill Holes'' and ''Watershed'' functions to separate particles; (d), final image after application of the ''Extended Particle Analyzer'' function, which removes coarse sand particles.
Fig. 6 Time series of friction velocity during 28-29 May 2019 at the site Sub19D. Blue line, no sand transport; black line, active sand transport; u*t inst, instantaneous threshold friction velocity at the start and end of sand transport; u*t mean, mean threshold friction velocity (dashed horizontal line). Friction velocities obtained when the wind direction was between 10° and 260° (green line) were not used in the determination of the threshold friction velocity. Friction velocity was calculated using Equation 3 with aerodynamic roughness length of the threshold friction velocity. Friction velocity was calculated using Equation 3 with aerodynamic roughness length of 0.0012 m/s. Wind speed and wind direction (WD) were measured at 1.7 m height. UTC is the Coordinated Universal Time.
Site name Soil texture Stone coverage (%) Ratio of breadth to height Height
(cm)		 Roughness density Roughness
length
(cm)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Main Loam 18.6 2.95 1.75 0.37 0.39 0.15 0.05 0.001 0.0152
Sub14A Loam 0.0 - - - - - 0.00 - 0.0012
Sub14B Loam 22.4 3.52 1.81 0.30 0.57 0.23 0.07 0.016 0.0318
Sub18A Loam 57.1 5.84 1.88 0.36 1.05 0.27 0.34 0.039 0.1569
Sub18B Loam 28.8 3.26 1.85 0.35 0.48 0.19 0.13 0.017 0.0519
Sub18C Sandy Loam 33.9 4.25 1.74 0.43 0.65 0.37 0.16 0.023 0.0878
Sub18D Silt Loam 2.9 1.01 1.93 0.41 0.47 0.16 0.01 0.004 0.0011
Sub19A Loam 47.2 4.13 1.89 0.37 1.01 0.35 0.32 0.031 0.1587
Sub19B Loam 39.7 4.73 1.84 0.39 0.89 0.30 0.24 0.036 0.1628
Sub19C Loam 0.0 - - - - - 0.00 - 0.0012
Sub19D Loam 0.0 - - - - - 0.00 - 0.0012
Table 2 Measurement results for coverage, mean height, roughness density, and roughness length of stones at each site
Fig. 7 Relationship between stone coverage and roughness density from this study (black dots) and the study of Marticorena et al. (2006) (open circles)
Fig. 8 Frequency distributions of the ratio of breadth to height of stones at the sites Sub18A (a), Sub19A (b), Sub19B (c), Sub18C (d), Sub18B (e), Sub14B (f), Main (g), and Sub18D (h)
Fig. 9 Friction velocity when the wind direction was between 260° and 370° (i.e., 10°) (blue lines) or between 10° and 260° (green lines), instantaneous threshold friction velocity (red circles), and mean threshold friction velocity (dashed lines) during 1-5 May 2018 at the sites Sub18C (a), Sub14B (b), and Main (c). u*t mean, mean threshold friction velocity; SD, standard deviation of the instantaneous thresholds around the mean.
Fig. 10 Friction velocity when the wind direction was between 260° and 370° (i.e., 10°) (blue lines) or between 10° and 260° (green lines), instantaneous threshold friction velocity (red circles), and mean threshold friction velocity (dashed lines) from 27 April to 8 May 2019 at the sites Sub19A (a), Sub19B (b), Sub14B (c), Main (d), Sub14A (e), Sub19C (f), and Sub19D (g).
Fig. 11 Relationship between roughness density and mean threshold friction velocity observed at the bare or stony (i.e., no vegetation and no crust) sites (black dots), stony and vegetated sites (open rectangles), vegetated site with crust (open triangle), and site with crust only (open rhombus) in spring 2018 and 2019. Symbols show the average roughness density and mean observed threshold friction velocity, and bars show their standard deviations. For sites Main, Sub14A, and Sub14B, where observations were carried out year-round, the four digits before the site name indicate the year of the observations.
Fig. 12 Scatter plot between the observed threshold friction velocity (during 1-5 May 2018 and during 27 April-8 May 2019) and simulated threshold friction velocity using the observed roughness density of stones at the bare or stony (i.e., no vegetation and no crust) sites (black dots), stony and vegetated sites (open rectangles), vegetated site with crust (open triangle), and site with crust only (open rhombus). The two horizontal thin dashed lines show the simulated threshold friction velocity using roughness densities of 0.002 and 0.020 for barren and sparsely vegetated land cover types, respectively.
Fig. 13 Crust conditions at the sites Sub14A (a) and Sub18D (b) in spring 2018, and at the sites Sub14A (c) and Sub19C (d) in spring 2019
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