Please wait a minute...
Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2024, Vol. 16 Issue (10): 1327-1343    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-024-0029-8     CSTR: 32276.14.s40333-024-0029-8
Research article     
Rock mechanical characteristics and landscape evolutionary mechanism of the slit-type Danxia landform on the Chinese Loess Plateau
MEN Huan1, DING Hua2,3,4,*(), DENG Yahong1,5, MU Huandong1, HE Nainan1, SUN Pushuo1, LI Zhixu1, LIU Yan1
1School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China
2School of Architecture, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710061, China
3Shaanxi Academy of Yellow River Sciences, Xi'an 710054, China
4Institute of Tourism Planning and Design, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China
5Key Laboratory of Mine Geological Hazards Mechanism and Control, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xi'an 710054, China
Download: HTML     PDF(3121KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)      

Abstract  

Since 2015, the newly discovered slit-type Danxia landform on the Chinese Loess Plateau has become a hot topic in the field of geomorphology worldwide. However, the relationships among its formation, evolutionary mechanism, and mechanical characteristics of its strata and rocks are not clear. In this paper, the Ganquan canyon group is used as the research object. Basic physical and mechanical indices of sandstone in the Ganquan canyon group were measured through field investigation and indoor experiments, and the deterioration trends for the mechanical parameters of sandstone in this area under the action of infiltration, acid dry-wet cycles, and freeze-thaw cycles were revealed. Lastly, the formation and evolutionary mechanism of the slit-type Danxia landform were discussed. The results showed that: (1) The sandstone in the canyon group had a low cementation degree and weak cohesive force, which was easily weakened under the action of water, resulting in a decrease in compressive strength and elastic modulus. (2) Acidic dry-wet cycles caused the mineral composition of the sandstone to be dissolved, and the micropores continued to grow and develop until new cracks were produced. Macroscopically, the compressive strength and elastic modulus of sandstone were greatly reduced, and this damage was cumulative and staged. The greater the acidity, the greater the damage. (3) As the number of freeze-thaw cycles increased, the uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus of the sandstone decreased continuously. During the freeze-thaw cycle process, the growth and development of cracks were primarily in fracture mode and usually developed along parallel bedding positions. (4) The interaction of tectonic activity and lithology with different weathering processes was a key factor in the formation and evolution of the slit-type Danxia landform. In conclusion, the intricate process of weathering influenced by historical climatic fluctuations has been pivotal in shaping the topography of Danxia landform.

Key words： landscape-forming rocks      mechanical characteristics      landscape-forming effects      slit-type      Danxia landform      Loess Plateau     
Received: 26 March 2024      Published: 31 October 2024
Corresponding Authors: * DING Hua (E-mail: dinghua@chd.edu.cn)
Service
E-mail this article
Add to my bookshelf
Add to citation manager
E-mail Alert
RSS
Articles by authors
MEN Huan
DING Hua
DENG Yahong
MU Huandong
HE Nainan
SUN Pushuo
LI Zhixu
LIU Yan
Cite this article:

MEN Huan, DING Hua, DENG Yahong, MU Huandong, HE Nainan, SUN Pushuo, LI Zhixu, LIU Yan. Rock mechanical characteristics and landscape evolutionary mechanism of the slit-type Danxia landform on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(10): 1327-1343.

URL:

http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-024-0029-8     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2024/V16/I10/1327

Fig. 1 Sampling sites of the Ganquan canyon group, Shaanxi Province, China
Fig. 2 Danxia landform landscape of the Ganquan canyon group. (a), Huabaocha Gully; (b), Mudan Gully; (c), Yixiantian Gully; (d), Longbagou Gully; (e and f), Huashu Gully; (g), kettle caves; (h), red cliffs; (i), micro-geomorphology.
Fig. 3 Microscopic characterization of sandstones in the Lower Cretaceous Luohe Formation. (a), single polarized photo; (b), orthogonal polarizer photo. PI, feldspar; Q, quartz.
Test type Content Groups×number of samples per group
Basic physical
and mechanical
test		 Natural moisture 2×5
Water absorption 2×5
Saturated water absorption 2×5
Natural density 2×5
Uniaxial compression strength 1×3
Triaxial compressive strength (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 MPa) 5×3
Softening
test		 Natural 1×3
Dry 1×3
Saturated 1×3
Acid dry-wet
cycle test		 The samples were dried in the oven for 12 h, cooled naturally for 15 min to room temperature, and then soaked in the solution for 12 h to ensure full water absorption. After soaking, we dried the samples at room temperature for 15 min. 4×3, pH=4
4×3, pH=5
4×3, pH=6
Freeze-thaw cycle test The samples were frozen at -20°C for 4 h, and then thawed in a water bath at 20°C for 4 h. 4×3
Table 1 Overall experimental design
Natural density
(g/cm3)		 Natural moisture content (%) Water absorption
(%)		 Saturated water absorption (%) Saturation coefficient Cohesion
(MPa)		 Internal friction angle
(°)
2.10 5.81 6.40 9.29 0.69 3.79 41.98
Table 2 Basic physical-mechanical properties of sandstone
Sample state Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)		 Mean
Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)
Natural 15.936 3.070 14.049 2.491
13.617 2.591
12.593 1.813
Dry 17.811 2.846 18.517 3.433
19.012 3.335
18.728 4.119
Saturated 11.924 2.286 9.578 1.980
8.759 1.846
8.590 1.808
Table 3 Unconfined uniaxial compressive strength test results under natural, dry, and saturated conditions
Fig. 4 Comparison of uniaxial stress-strain curves under natural, dry, and saturated conditions
Fig. 5 Stress-strain curves of sandstone under different dry-wet cycles and acidic environments. (a), pH=4; (b), pH=5; (c), pH=6.
Number of cycles pH=4 pH=5 pH=6
Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)		 Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)		 Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)
0 15.936 3.070 15.936 3.070 15.936 3.070
10 10.355 1.911 12.227 2.480 12.722 2.412
20 9.790 1.801 10.887 2.282 11.169 2.600
30 9.668 1.994 10.737 2.221 11.095 2.129
40 8.724 1.800 9.699 1.813 10.641 2.138
Table 4 Peak strength and modulus of elasticity of sandstones under acidic wet-dry cycles
Number
of dry-wet cycles		 pH=4 pH=5 pH=6
Peak strength Elastic modulus Peak strength Elastic modulus Peak strength Elastic modulus
${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%) ${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%) ${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%) ${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%) ${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%) ${{S}_{n}}$(%) $\Delta {{S}_{n}}$(%)
10 35.02 35.02 37.75 37.75 23.27 23.27 19.22 19.22 20.17 20.17 21.43 21.43
20 38.57 3.55 41.34 3.58 31.68 8.41 25.67 6.45 29.91 9.74 15.31 -6.12
30 39.33 0.77 35.05 -6.29 32.62 0.94 27.65 1.98 30.38 0.46 30.65 15.34
40 45.26 5.92 41.37 6.32 39.14 6.51 40.91 13.29 33.23 2.85 30.36 -0.29
Table 5 Mechanical parameters of sandstone under acid dry-wet cycles
Fig. 6 Trends of uniaxial compression strength (a) and total deterioration degree (b) under acidic dry-wet cycles
Fig. 7 Trends of elastic modulus (a) and total deterioration degree (b) under acidic dry-wet cycles
Fig. 8 Slit-type Danxia landform rock echelon joints (a) and bryophyte-attached rock walls (b)
Fig. 9 Uniaxial stress-strain curves of sandstone under freeze-thaw cycles. n is the number of freeze-thaw cycles.
Fig. 10 Trends of peak strength (a) and elastic modulus (b) of sandstone under freeze-thaw cycles. UCS, uniaxial compression strength; TDD, total deterioration degree; EM, elastic modulus.
Number of
freeze-thaw cycles		 Peak strength
(MPa)		 Elastic modulus
(GPa)		 Total deterioration degree (%) Stage deterioration degree (%)
Peak strength Elastic modulus Peak strength Elastic modulus
0 14.566 2.998 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 13.856 2.446 4.87 18.41 4.87 18.41
6 12.807 2.357 12.08 21.38 7.20 2.97
9 10.736 1.770 26.29 40.96 14.22 19.58
12 7.467 1.263 48.74 57.87 22.44 16.91
Table 6 Mechanical parameter of sandstone under freeze-thaw cycles
Fig. 11 Growth and development of cracks in rocks during freeze-thaw cycles. (a), 3 cycles; (b), 6 cycles; (c), 9 cycles.
[1]   Barton N. 2013. Shear strength criteria for rock, rock joints, rockfill and rock masses: Problems and some solutions. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 5(4): 249-261.
[2]   Bruthans J, Svetlik D, Soukup J, et al. 2012. Fast evolving conduits in clay-bonded sandstone: Characterization, erosion processes and significance for the origin of sandstone landforms. Geomorphology, 177-178: 178-193.
[3]   Bruthans J, Soukup J, Vaculikova J, et al. 2014. Sandstone landforms shaped by negative feedback between stress and erosion. Nature Geoscience, 7(8): 598-602.
[4]   Chen L Q, Guo F S, Shao C J, et al. 2022. Characteristics and controlling factors of danxia landscapes in Jiangxi Province. Acta Geologica Sinica, 96(11): 4023-4037. (in Chinese)
[5]   Deng H F, Xiao Z Y, Li J L, et al. 2015. Deteriorating change rule test research of damage sandstone strength under water-rock Interaction. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 34(Supp1.): 2690-2698. (in Chinese)
[6]   Ding H, Duan F H, Chen S S, et al. 2023a. Characteristics, protection and utilization of the canyons of Danxia landscape geoheritages in Ganquan area of the northern Shaanxi, China. Journal of Earth Sciences and Environment, 45(2): 362-372. (in Chinese)
[7]   Ding H, Liao W Q, Duan F H, et al. 2023b. Characteristics, spatial distribution and formation mechanism of Danxia landform in Shaanxi Province. Arid Land Geography, 46(4): 527-538. (in Chinese)
[8]   Duszynski F, Jancewicz K, Migon P. 2018. Evidence for subsurface origin of boulder caves, roofed slots and boulder-filled canyons (Broumov Highland, Czechia). International Journal of Speleology, 47(3): 343-359.
[9]   Fang Y, Qiao L, Chen X, et al. 2014. Experimental study of freezing-thawing cycles on sandstone in Yungang grottos. Rock and Soil Mechanics, 35(9): 2433-2442. (in Chinese)
[10]   Feng J L, Zhu H S. 1928. Geology and mineral resources of Qujiang, Renhua, Shixing and Nanxiong, Guangdong Province. Annals of Guangdong and Guangxi Geological Survey, 1: 38-42. (in Chinese)
[11]   Filippi M, Bruthans J, Řihošek J, et al. 2018. Arcades: Products of stress-controlled and discontinuity-related weathering. Earth-Science Reviews, 180: 159-184.
[12]   Filippi M, Slavík M, Bruthans J, et al. 2021. Accelerated disintegration of in situ disconnected portions of sandstone outcrops. Geomorphology, 391: 107897, doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107897.
[13]   Fu Y, Yuan W, Liu X R, et al. 2018. Deterioration rules of strength parameters of sandstone under cyclical wetting and drying in acid-based environment. Rock and Soil Mechanics, 39(9): 3331-3339. (in Chinese)
[14]   Goudie A S. 2016. Quantification of rock control in geomorphology. Earth-Science Reviews, 159: 374-387.
[15]   Guo F S, Chen L Q, Yan Z B, et al. 2020. Definition, classification, and danxianization of Danxia landscapes. Acta Geologica Sinica, 94(2): 361-374. (in Chinese)
[16]   Guo G L, Guo F S, Liu X D, et al. 2006. Study by EPMA on microcosmic chemical weathering to sandstone in Danxia landform. Carsologica Sinica, 25(2): 172-176. (in Chinese)
[17]   Huang J. 2004. Quantitative survey of several important issues concerning the formation of the Danxia landforms. Tropical Geography, 24(2): 127-130. (in Chinese)
[18]   Huang S B, He Y B, Liu X W, et al. 2021. Experimental investigation of the influence of dry-wet, freeze-thaw and water immersion treatments on the mechanical strength of the clay-bearing green sandstone. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 138: 104613, doi: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2021.104613.
[19]   Jiang H P, Jiang A N, Zhang F R, et al. 2022. Study on mechanical properties and statistical damage constitutive model of red sandstone after heating and water-cooling cycles. International Journal of Damage Mechanics, 31(7): 975-998.
[20]   Jiang Y B, Guo F S, Liu L Q, et al. 2006. TL dating research of geomorphic surface on lower terraces of rives in Longhushang Danxia Landform areas. Journal of East China University of Technology, 29(3): 225-228. (in Chinese)
[21]   Jiang Y B, Guo F S, Liu L Q, et al. 2010. A study on the structure features and its relationship with the Danxia landforms in Xinjiang Basin. Journal of East China University of Technology, 33(4): 325-331. (in Chinese)
[22]   Li X, He Q C, Dong Y, et al. 2013. An analysis of characteristics and evolution of Danxia landform in the south of Chishui County, Guizhou. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 34(4): 500-507. (in Chinese)
[23]   Li Z H, Dong S W, Feng S B, et al. 2015. Sedimentary response to Middle-late Jurassic tectonic events in the Ordos Basin. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 36(1): 21-29. (in Chinese)
[24]   Luo B S. 1993. The relationship between Danxia landform development and unloading effect in Jinjiling Mountains. Journal of Guangdong University of Technology, 10(1): 83-90. (in Chinese)
[25]   Luo B S. 1994. The temperature stress effect of rock mass in the formation process of Danxia landform. Journal of Guangdong University of Technology, 11(4): 1-7. (in Chinese)
[26]   McGreevy J P. 1985. Thermal properties as controls on rock surface temperature maxima, and possible implications for rock weathering. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 10(2): 125-136.
[27]   National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China. 2013. GB/T 50266-2013: Standard for Test Method of Engineering Rock Mass. Beijing: China Planning Publishing House. (in Chinese)
[28]   Ouyang J, Zhu C, Peng H, et al. 2009. Types and spatial combinations of Danxia landform of Fangyan in Zhejiang Province. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 19(5): 631-640.
doi: 10.1007/s11442-009-0631-x
[29]   Ouyang J, Zhu C, Peng H. 2011. A contrast introduction to Danxia landforms from a world-wide references for similar landforms. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 31(8): 996-1000. (in Chinese)
doi: 10.13249/j.cnki.sgs.2011.08.996
[30]   Pan Z X, Peng H. 2015. Comparative study on the global distribution and geomorphic development of red beds. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 35(12): 1575-1584. (in Chinese)
[31]   Pan Z X, Ren F, Chen L Q, et al. 2021. Characteristics of Danxia landform in the northern Shaanxi and a comparison with other Danxia areas in and outside China. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 41(6): 1069-1078. (in Chinese)
doi: 10.13249/j.cnki.sgs.2021.06.016
[32]   Peng H. 2000. Research progress of Danxia landform in China. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 20(3): 203-211. (in Chinese)
[33]   Peng H, Pan Z X, Yan L B, et al. 2013. A review of the research on red beds and Danxia landform. Acta Geographica Sinica, 68(9): 1170-1181. (in Chinese)
doi: 10.11821/dlxb201309002
[34]   Peng X H, Wu H, Li Y Z, et al. 2020. A preliminary study on the genetic mechanism of wavy Danxia Landform in Longzhou, Jinabian, Shaanxi Province. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 41(3): 443-451. (in Chinese)
[35]   Peng X H, Wu H, Li X W, et al. 2021. Danxia landform types and development mechanism in Yan'an City. Arid Land Geography, 44(2): 418-426. (in Chinese)
[36]   Shi H, Yue D P, Zhao J B, et al. 2022. Study on geochemical sedimentary characteristics and paleoenvironment of red sandstone in Danxia landform area of Jingbian, northern Shaanxi Province. Geological Review, 68(1): 323-334. (in Chinese)
[37]   Song Y J, Tan H, Yang H M, et al. 2021. Fracture evolution and failure characteristics of sandstone under freeze-thaw cycling by computed tomography. Engineering Geology, 294: 106370, doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106370.
[38]   Sun X J, Wang P X. 2005. How old is the Asian monsoon system?—Palaeobotanical records from China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 222(3): 181-222.
[39]   Tan Y F, Li L H, Huang B X. 2021. Constrasting characteristics and origin of Danxia arched rock shelters in Zhejiang, China, and natural arches and bridges on the Colorado Plateau, USA. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 31(6): 802-818.
[40]   Turkington A V, Paradise T R. 2005. Sandstone weathering: A century of research and innovation. Geomorphology, 67(1-2): 229-253.
[41]   Xu G M, Liu Q S. 2005. Analysis of mechanism of rock failure due to freeze-thaw cycling and mechanical testing study on frozen-thawed rocks. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 24(17): 3076-3082. (in Chinese)
[42]   Yan Z Z, Du X P, Fan X T. 2015. Numerical simulation of the evolutionary process of Danxia landforms. Physical Geography, 36(4): 322-336.
[43]   Yatsu E. 1966. Rock Control in Geomorphology. Tokyo: Sozosha.
[44]   Young R W, Wray A L. 2015. Rock control in sandstone geomorphology: A tribute to Eiju Yatsu with some Australian examples. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 59(Suppl.): 3-17.
[45]   Yuan W, Liu X R, Fu Y. 2019. Chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics analysis of sandstone dissolution under the action of dry-wet cycles in acid and alkaline environments. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 78(2): 793-801.
doi: 10.1007/s10064-017-1162-9
[46]   Zhang Z T, Gao W H, Huang J P, et al. 2020. Swelling characteristics of red sandstone under cyclic wetting and drying. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 38(4): 4289-4306.
[47]   Zhao Z Y, Guo Y R, Wang Y, et al. 2012. Study progress in tectonic evolution and paleogeography of Ordos Basin. Special Oil & Gas Reservoirs, 19(5): 15-20. (in Chinese)
[48]   Zhu C, Peng H, Ouyang J, et al. 2010. Rock resistance and the development of horizontal grooves on Danxia slopes. Geomorphology, 123(1-2): 84-96.
[49]   Zhu C, Wu L, Zhu T X, et al. 2015. Experimental studies on the Danxia landscape morphogenesis in Mt. Danxiashan, South China. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 25(8): 943-966.
doi: 10.1007/s11442-015-1212-9
[1] SUN Hui, ZHAO Yunge, GAO Liqian, XU Mingxiang. Reasonable grazing may balance the conflict between grassland utilization and soil conservation in the semi-arid hilly areas, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(8): 1130-1146.
[2] LI Qing, LI Dan, WANG Sheng, WANG Jinfeng, WANG Rende, FU Gang, YUAN Yixiao, ZHENG Zhenhua. Spatiotemporal patterns and driving factors of soil protection in the wind-water erosion area of Chinese Loess Plateau[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(11): 1522-1540.
[3] WANG Jing, WEI Yulu, PENG Biao, LIU Siqi, LI Jianfeng. Spatiotemporal variations in ecosystem services and their trade-offs and synergies against the background of the gully control and land consolidation project on the Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(1): 131-145.
[4] MA Xinxin, ZHAO Yunge, YANG Kai, MING Jiao, QIAO Yu, XU Mingxiang, PAN Xinghui. Long-term light grazing does not change soil organic carbon stability and stock in biocrust layer in the hilly regions of drylands[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(8): 940-959.
[5] ZHANG Yixin, LI Peng, XU Guoce, MIN Zhiqiang, LI Qingshun, LI Zhanbin, WANG Bin, CHEN Yiting. Temporal and spatial variation characteristics of extreme precipitation on the Loess Plateau of China facing the precipitation process[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(4): 439-459.
[6] SUN Liquan, GUO Huili, CHEN Ziyu, YIN Ziming, FENG Hao, WU Shufang, Kadambot H M SIDDIQUE. Check dam extraction from remote sensing images using deep learning and geospatial analysis: A case study in the Yanhe River Basin of the Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2023, 15(1): 34-51.
[7] LIU Yulin, LI Jiwei, HAI Xuying, WU Jianzhao, DONG Lingbo, PAN Yingjie, SHANGGUAN Zhouping, WANG Kaibo, DENG Lei. Carbon inputs regulate the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in temperate forests[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(9): 1055-1068.
[8] WANG Yaobin, SHANGGUAN Zhouping. Formation mechanisms and remediation techniques for low-efficiency artificial shelter forests on the Chinese Loess Plateau[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(8): 837-848.
[9] WANG Fengjiao, FU Bojie, LIANG Wei, JIN Zhao, ZHANG Liwei, YAN Jianwu, FU Shuyi, GOU Fen. Assessment of drought and its impact on winter wheat yield in the Chinese Loess Plateau[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(7): 771-786.
[10] SUN Dingzhao, LIANG Youjia, PENG Shouzhang. Scenario simulation of water retention services under land use/cover and climate changes: a case study of the Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(4): 390-410.
[11] LI Panpan, WANG Bing, YANG Yanfen, LIU Guobin. Effects of vegetation near-soil-surface factors on runoff and sediment reduction in typical grasslands on the Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(3): 325-340.
[12] WU Huining, CUI Qiaoyu. High-frequency climatic fluctuations over the past 30 ka in northwestern margin of the East Asian monsoon region, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(12): 1331-1343.
[13] LING Xinying, MA Jinzhu, CHEN Peiyuan, LIU Changjie, Juske HORITA. Isotope implications of groundwater recharge, residence time and hydrogeochemical evolution of the Longdong Loess Basin, Northwest China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2022, 14(1): 34-55.
[14] CHEN Shumin, JIN Zhao, ZHANG Jing, YANG Siqi. Soil quality assessment in different dammed-valley farmlands in the hilly-gully mountain areas of the northern Loess Plateau, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(8): 777-789.
[15] HUANG Laiming, ZHAO Wen, SHAO Ming'an. Response of plant physiological parameters to soil water availability during prolonged drought is affected by soil texture[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2021, 13(7): 688-698.