Please wait a minute...
Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2026, Vol. 18 Issue (4): 568-583    DOI: 10.1016/j.jaridl.2026.04.002     CSTR: 32276.14.JAL.20250216
Research article     
Spatiotemporal variations of surface water and its response to climate change in global arid regions during 2000-2020
TIAN Yanjun1, SUN Yongqi1, HOU Senlei1, GAO Yongnian2,*(), ERKIN Shireli1,3
1 School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100, China
2 College of Geography and Remote Sensing, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100, China
3 College of Hydraulic and Civil Engineering, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
Download: HTML     PDF(3480KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)      

Abstract  

Surface water plays an essential role in the ecohydrological cycle, especially in water-scarce regions. Changes in surface water restrict social, economic, and agricultural development. However, the patterns and underlying causes of surface water changes over varying frequencies in global arid regions remain unclear. Thus, this study investigated the changes in surface water and the underlying causes using the trend analysis and Spearman correlation coefficient on the basis of multi-source remote sensing and climate datasets across global arid regions during 2000-2020. The surface water was divided into temporary surface water (TSW), seasonal surface water (SSW), and permanent surface water (PSW) by calculating the surface water inundation frequency. Considering that surface water may be influenced by precipitation in the upper basins, we analyzed the response of surface water area to climatic factors at the basin scale. The area of all surface water (ASW) increased dramatically in global arid regions from 2000 to 2020, increasing from 61.88×104 to 67.40×104 km2; however, this increase was accompanied by a decrease in surface water inundation frequency. TSW increased by 55.46% relative to its area in 2000, with a net change rate of 3284.00 km2/a. Changes in surface water were predominantly observed in the Kyzylkum Desert in Central Asia, the Thar Desert in southwestern Asia, and the deserts in Oceania. Precipitation had a significant effect on SSW and TSW at the basin scale. The correlation between precipitation and SSW area can reach 0.808 in the Indus River Basin of the Thar Desert (P<0.01). The findings provide a more comprehensive understanding of surface water variability in global arid regions, carrying significant practical implications for the scientific management of surface water at different frequencies.

Key words： surface water area      surface water inundation frequency      temporary surface water      climate change      snow melting      global arid regions     
Received: 13 May 2025      Published: 30 April 2026
Corresponding Authors: *GAO Yongnian (E-mail: yngao@hhu.edu.cn)
Service
E-mail this article
Add to my bookshelf
Add to citation manager
E-mail Alert
RSS
Articles by authors
TIAN Yanjun
SUN Yongqi
HOU Senlei
GAO Yongnian
ERKIN Shireli
Cite this article:

TIAN Yanjun, SUN Yongqi, HOU Senlei, GAO Yongnian, ERKIN Shireli. Spatiotemporal variations of surface water and its response to climate change in global arid regions during 2000-2020. Journal of Arid Land, 2026, 18(4): 568-583.

URL:

http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1016/j.jaridl.2026.04.002     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2026/V18/I4/568

Fig. 1 Spatial distribution of global arid regions
Fig. 2 Temporal variations of surface water area in global arid regions from 2000 to 2020. ASW, all surface water; PSW, permanent surface water; SSW, seasonal surface water; TSW, temporary surface water.
Fig. 3 Abrupt changes in surface water area during 2000-2020. (a), ASW; (b), PSW; (c), SSW; (d), TSW. The blue dots indicate years in which the changes were statistically significant.
Fig. 4 Spatial pattern of surface water area changes in global arid regions during 2000-2020. (a1 and a2), trend and significance of ASW change; (b1 and b2), trend and significance of PSW change; (c1 and c2), trend and significance of SSW change; (d1 and d2), trend and significance of TSW change.
Fig. 5 Hotspots of surface water inundation frequency decrease (a) and increase (b) in global arid regions during 2000-2020
Fig. 6 Spatial pattern of surface water area change in global arid regions at the basin scale during 2000-2020. (a), ASW; (b), PSW; (c), SSW; (d), TSW.
Fig. 7 Spatiotemporal variations of precipitation in global arid regions during 2000-2020. (a), spatial pattern of variation in precipitation; (b), temporal variation in precipitation.
Fig. 8 Temporal variations in surface water area and monthly precipitation for the Mackay Lake Basin (a), Eyre Lake Basin (b), Amu Darya River Basin (c), Syr Darya River Basin (d), Mesopotamia Basin (e), and Indus River Basin (f)
Type of surface water Correlation coefficient
Mackay Lake Basin Eyre Lake
Basin		 Amu Darya River Basin Syr Darya River Basin Mesopotamia Basin Indus River Basin
PSW 0.653*** 0.705*** - 0.368* 0.510** 0.432**
SSW 0.700*** 0.773*** 0.512** - 0.536** 0.808***
TSW 0.395* 0.648*** 0.406* - 0.379* -
Table 1 Spearman correlation coefficient between precipitation and surface water area for the six typical basins
Fig. 9 Spatiotemporal variations of temperature in global arid regions during 2000-2020. (a), spatial pattern of variation in temperature; (b), temporal variation in temperature.
Fig. 10 Spatial distribution of snow cover in 2020 (a) and temporal variation in snow cover area during 2001-2020 (b)
Type of surface water Correlation coefficient
Mackay Lake Basin Eyre Lake
Basin		 Amu Darya River Basin Syr Darya River Basin Mesopotamia Basin Indus River Basin
PSW -0.656*** -0.735*** - - - -
SSW -0.668*** -0.627*** - 0.377* - -
TSW - -0.501** 0.430* - - -
Table 2 Spearman correlation coefficient between temperature and surface water area for the six typical basins
[1]   Abd-Elhamid H F, El-Dakak A M, Saleh O K, et al. 2025. Assessment of drought risks in arid regions utilizing remote sensing data and the standardized precipitation index in the context of climate change. Earth Systems and Environment, doi: 10.1007/s41748-025-00678-z.
[2]   Ahmad I, Zhang F, Tayyab M, et al. 2018. Spatiotemporal analysis of precipitation variability in annual, seasonal and extreme values over upper Indus River basin. Atmospheric Research, 213: 346-360.
doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.06.019
[3]   Ajjur S B, Al-Ghamdi S G. 2021. Evapotranspiration and water availability response to climate change in the Middle East and North Africa. Climatic Change, 166(3): 28, doi: 10.1007/s10584-021-03122-z.
[4]   Beck H E, van Dijk A I J M, Larraondo P R, et al. 2022. MSWX: Global 3-hourly 0.1° bias-corrected meteorological data including near-real-time updates and forecast ensembles. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 103(3): E710-E732.
[5]   Bertola M, Viglione A, Blöschl G. 2019. Informed attribution of flood changes to decadal variation of atmospheric, catchment and river drivers in Upper Austria. Journal of Hydrology, 577: 123919, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123919.
[6]   Cao C Y, Zhu X Y, Liu K D, et al. 2025. Satellite-observed arid vegetation greening and terrestrial water storage decline in the Hexi Corridor, Northwest China. Remote Sensing, 17(8): 1361, doi: 10.3390/rs17081361.
[7]   Chang D, Li S, Lai Z Q. 2023. Effects of extreme precipitation intensity and duration on the runoff and nutrient yields. Journal of Hydrology, 626: 130281, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.130281.
[8]   Chen Y N, Li Z, Fan Y T, et al. 2015. Progress and prospects of climate change impacts on hydrology in the arid region of northwest China. Environmental Research, 139: 11-19.
doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.12.029 pmid: 25682220
[9]   Chen Y N, Zhang X Q, Fang G H, et al. 2020. Potential risks and challenges of climate change in the arid region of northwestern China. Regional Sustainability, 1(1): 20-30.
doi: 10.1016/j.regsus.2020.06.003
[10]   Dadson S J, Lopez H P, Peng J, et al. 2019. Hydroclimatic extremes and climate change. In: Dadson S J, Garrick D E, Penning-Rowsell E C, et al. Water Science, Policy, and Management: A Global Challenge. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 11-28.
[11]   Deng H J, Chen Y N. 2017. Influences of recent climate change and human activities on water storage variations in Central Asia. Journal of Hydrology, 544: 46-57.
doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.11.006
[12]   Donchyts G, Baart F, Winsemius H, et al. 2016. Earth's surface water change over the past 30 years. Nature Climate Change, 6(9): 810-813.
doi: 10.1038/nclimate3111
[13]   Du R S, Shang F H, Ma N. 2019. Automatic mutation feature identification from well logging curves based on sliding t test algorithm. Cluster Computing, 22: 14193-14200.
doi: 10.1007/s10586-018-2267-z
[14]   Hamed K H, Rao A R. 1998. A modified Mann-Kendall trend test for autocorrelated data. Journal of Hydrology, 204(1-4): 182-196.
doi: 10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00125-X
[15]   Huang C, Chen Y, Zhang S Q, et al. 2018. Detecting, extracting, and monitoring surface water from space using optical sensors: A review. Reviews of Geophysics, 56(2): 333-360.
doi: 10.1029/2018RG000598
[16]   Huang S Z, Huang Q, Chang J X, et al. 2016. Linkages between hydrological drought, climate indices and human activities: a case study in the Columbia River basin. International Journal of Climatology, 36(1): 280-290.
doi: 10.1002/joc.4344
[17]   Huang W J, Duan W L, Chen Y N. 2021. Rapidly declining surface and terrestrial water resources in Central Asia driven by socio-economic and climatic changes. Science of The Total Environment, 784: 147193, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147193.
[18]   Huss M, Hock R. 2018. Global-scale hydrological response to future glacier mass loss. Nature Climate Change, 8(2): 135-140.
doi: 10.1038/s41558-017-0049-x
[19]   Immerzeel W W, Van Beek L P H, Bierkens M F P. 2010. Climate change will affect the Asian water towers. Science, 328(5984): 1382-1385.
doi: 10.1126/science.1183188 pmid: 20538947
[20]   Jia Z X, Lin T, Guo X Z, et al. 2024. Vegetation greening mitigates the positive impacts of climate change on water availability in Northwest China. Journal of Hydrology, 644: 132086, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.132086.
[21]   Li B Y, Liu D W, Yu E T, et al. 2024. Warming-and-wetting trend over the China's drylands: Observational evidence and future projection. Global Environmental Change, 86: 102826, doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102826.
[22]   Li F, Li Y M, Zhou X W, et al. 2022. Modeling and analyzing supply-demand relationships of water resources in Xinjiang from a perspective of ecosystem services. Journal of Arid Land, 14(2): 115-138.
doi: 10.1007/s40333-022-0059-z
[23]   Liu H J, Chen Y N, Ye Z X, et al. 2019. Recent lake area changes in Central Asia. Scientific Reports, 9(1): 16277, doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-52396-y.
[24]   Liu H Y, Shi Y, Chang Q, et al. 2024a. A new extraction method of surface water based on dense time-sequence images. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, 17: 3151-3166.
doi: 10.1109/JSTARS.2023.3348488
[25]   Liu K, Li X K, Wang S D, et al. 2023. Past and future adverse response of terrestrial water storages to increased vegetation growth in drylands. npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 6(1): 113, doi: 10.1038/s41612-023-00437-9.
[26]   Liu Y, Zhang J M, Huo H, et al. 2024b. Identifying and mapping the spatial distribution of regions prone to snowmelt flood hazards in the arid region of Central Asia: A case study in Xinjiang, China. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 17(1): e12947, doi: 10.1111/jfr3.12947.
[27]   Lv M X, Ma Z G, Lv M Z. 2018. Effects of climate/land surface changes on streamflow with consideration of precipitation intensity and catchment characteristics in the Yellow River Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 123(4): 1942-1958.
doi: 10.1002/jgrd.v123.4
[28]   Mann H B. 1945. Nonparametric tests against trend. Econometrica, 13(3): 245-259.
doi: 10.2307/1907187
[29]   McMahon T A, Murphy R E, Peel M C, et al. 2008. Understanding the surface hydrology of the Lake Eyre Basin: part 1—rainfall. Journal of Arid Environments, 72(10): 1853-1868.
doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.06.004
[30]   Meng N, Wang N A, Cheng H Y, et al. 2023. Impacts of climate change and anthropogenic activities on the normalized difference vegetation index of desertified areas in northern China. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 33(3): 483-507.
doi: 10.1007/s11442-023-2093-y
[31]   Mishra V, Nanditha J S, Dangar S, et al. 2024. Drivers, changes, and impacts of hydrological extremes in India: A review. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 11(5): e1742, doi: 10.1002/wat2.1742.
[32]   Motiee S, Motiee H, Ahmadi A. 2024. Analysis of rapid snow and ice cover loss in mountain glaciers of arid and semi-arid regions using remote sensing data. Journal of Arid Environments, 222: 105153, doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2024.105153.
[33]   Myers L, Sirois M J. 2006. Spearman correlation coefficients, differences between. In: Kotz S, Balakrishnan N, Read C B, et al. Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences (2nd ed.). Hoboken: John Willey & Sons, 7901-7903.
[34]   Pandey P, Nawaz Ali S, Subhasmita Das S, et al. 2024. Rock glaciers of the semi-arid northwestern Himalayas: distribution, characteristics, and hydrological significance. CATENA, 238: 107845, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2024.107845.
[35]   Peel M C, Finlayson B L, McMahon T A. 2007. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 11(5): 1633-1644.
doi: 10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007
[36]   Pekel J F, Cottam A, Gorelick N, et al. 2016. High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes. Nature, 540(7633): 418-422.
doi: 10.1038/nature20584
[37]   Piao S L, Ciais P, Huang Y, et al. 2010. The impacts of climate change on water resources and agriculture in China. Nature, 467(7311): 43-51.
doi: 10.1038/nature09364
[38]   Pomee M S, Hertig E. 2022. Precipitation projections over the Indus River Basin of Pakistan for the 21st century using a statistical downscaling framework. International Journal of Climatology, 42(1): 289-314.
doi: 10.1002/joc.v42.1
[39]   Pook M J, Risbey J S, Ummenhofer C C, et al. 2014. A synoptic climatology of heavy rain events in the Lake Eyre and Lake Frome catchments. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2: 54, doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2014.00054.
[40]   Sen P K. 1968. Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall's tau. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63(324): 1379-1389.
doi: 10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934
[41]   Sheng Y W, Song C Q, Wang J D, et al. 2016. Representative lake water extent mapping at continental scales using multi-temporal Landsat-8 imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 185: 129-141.
doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2015.12.041
[42]   Sogno P, Klein I, Kuenzer C. 2022. Remote sensing of surface water dynamics in the context of global change—a review. Remote Sensing, 14(10): 2475, doi: 10.3390/rs14102475.
[43]   Soheb M, Bastian P, Schmidt S, et al. 2024. Surface and subsurface flow of a glacierised catchment in the cold-arid region of Ladakh, Trans-Himalaya. Journal of Hydrology, 635: 131063, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131063.
[44]   Sun L Y, Yang X Q, Tao L F. 2023. Impact of ENSO on wintertime land surface variables in northern Hemisphere Extratropics: Role of atmospheric moisture processes. Journal of Climate, 36(16): 5443-5460.
doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-22-0777.1
[45]   Tran Anh D, Van S P, Dang T D, et al. 2019. Downscaling rainfall using deep learning long short-term memory and feedforward neural network. International Journal of Climatology, 39(10): 4170-4188.
doi: 10.1002/joc.v39.10
[46]   Tulbure M G, Broich M. 2019. Spatiotemporal patterns and effects of climate and land use on surface water extent dynamics in a dryland region with three decades of Landsat satellite data. Science of The Total Environment, 658: 1574-1585.
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.390
[47]   Wang L G, Liu W, Feng Q, et al. 2025. Patterns and drivers of water-land resources nexus in arid inland river basins of northwestern China. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 26: 100702, doi: 10.1016/j.indic.2025.100702.
[48]   Wu Q H, Ke L H, Wang J D, et al. 2023. Satellites reveal hotspots of global river extent change. Nature Communications, 14(1): 1587, doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-37061-3.
[49]   Wu W Y, Lo M H, Wada Y, et al. 2020. Divergent effects of climate change on future groundwater availability in key mid-latitude aquifers. Nature Communications, 11(1): 3710, doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-17581-y.
[50]   Wulder M A, White J C, Loveland T R, et al. 2016. The global Landsat archive: Status, consolidation, and direction. Remote Sensing of Environment, 185: 271-283.
doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2015.11.032
[51]   Xiao J Y, Xie B G, Zhou K C, et al. 2024. Responses of hydrological processes to vegetation greening and climate change in subtropical watersheds. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 55: 101946, doi: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101946.
[52]   Xie Z Y, Huete A, Restrepo-Coupe N, et al. 2016. Spatial partitioning and temporal evolution of Australia's total water storage under extreme hydroclimatic impacts. Remote Sensing of Environment, 183: 43-52.
doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2016.05.017
[53]   Yang K, Yu Z Y, Luo Y. 2020a. Analysis on driving factors of lake surface water temperature for major lakes in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. Water Research, 184: 116018, doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116018.
[54]   Yang L S, Feng Q, Yin Z L, et al. 2020b. Regional hydrology heterogeneity and the response to climate and land surface changes in arid alpine basin, northwest China. CATENA, 187: 104345, doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2019.104345.
[55]   Yang W C, Zhang X Y, Wang Z S, et al. 2024. Identifying components and controls of streamflow in a cold and arid headwater catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 633: 131022, doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131022.
[56]   Yu Y, Pi Y Y, Yu X, et al. 2019. Climate change, water resources and sustainable development in the arid and semi-arid lands of Central Asia in the past 30 years. Journal of Arid Land, 11(1): 1-14.
doi: 10.1007/s40333-018-0073-3
[57]   Zhang G Q, Yao T D, Chen W F, et al. 2019. Regional differences of lake evolution across China during 1960s-2015 and its natural and anthropogenic causes. Remote Sensing of Environment, 221: 386-404.
doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2018.11.038
[58]   Zhang J J, Xu B, Gu Z Y, et al. 2023a. Coupling of river discharges and alpine glaciers in arid Central Asia. Quaternary International, 667: 19-28.
doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2023.06.002
[59]   Zhang Y Q, Li C C, Chiew F H S, et al. 2023b. Southern Hemisphere dominates recent decline in global water availability. Science, 382(6670): 579-584.
doi: 10.1126/science.adh0716
[60]   Zheng G X, Bao A M, Li J L, et al. 2019. Sustained growth of high mountain lakes in the headwaters of the Syr Darya River, Central Asia. Global and Planetary Change, 176: 84-99.
doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.03.004
[61]   Zhou C L, Wang K C. 2016. Land surface temperature over global deserts: Means, variability, and trends. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121(24): 14344-14357.
[62]   Zou Z H, Xiao X M, Dong J W, et al. 2018. Divergent trends of open-surface water body area in the contiguous United States from 1984 to 2016. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(15): 3810-3815.
[1] CHU Jiangdong, SU Xiaoling, WANG Lei, WU Nan, Komelle ASKARI, WU Haijiang, ZHANG Te, XU Liujia, ZHANG Qifei. Glacial melting impact on runoff and evapotranspiration based on glacier-coupled SWAT model: A case study in the upper Shiyang River Basin, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2026, 18(2): 216-234.
[2] WANG Wenbo, LIN Li, CHEN Dandan, YANG Jiayun. Assessing future drought evolution and driving mechanisms in the Weigan River Basin under CMIP6 climate scenarios[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2026, 18(2): 235-262.
[3] XU Xiaona, ZHANG Huayong. Spatiotemporal evolution of net ecosystem productivity and the driving mechanisms in Horqin Sandy Land, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2026, 18(1): 34-55.
[4] Dianela Alejandra CALVO, Juan José GAITÁN, Juan Manuel ZEBERIO, Ana Inés CASALINI, Guadalupe PETER. Divergent vegetation response to increasing grazing pressure in arid and semi-arid rangelands in Argentina[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2026, 18(1): 84-100.
[5] XIU Xiaomin, WU Bo, CHEN Qian, LI Yiran, PANG Yingjun, JIA Xiaohong, ZHU Jinlei, LU Qi. Spatio-temporal dynamics of desertification in China from 1970 to 2019: A meta-analysis[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(9): 1189-1214.
[6] HE Bing, LI Ying, GAO Fan, XU Hailiang, WU Bin, YANG Pengnian, BAN Jingya, LIU Zeyi, LIU Kun, HAN Fanghong, MA Zhenghu, WANG Lu. Response of vegetation to climate change along the elevation gradient in High Mountain Asia[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(9): 1215-1233.
[7] QIU Yuhao, DUAN Limin, CHEN Siyi, WANG Donghua, ZHANG Wenrui, GAO Ruizhong, WANG Guoqiang, LIU Tingxi. Combined application of variable infiltration capacity model and Budyko hypothesis for identification of runoff evolution in the Yellow River Basin, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(8): 1048-1063.
[8] MA Junyao, YANG Kun, ZHANG Xuyang, WANG Leiyu, XUE Yayong. Long-term vegetation dynamics and its drivers in the north of China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(8): 1064-1083.
[9] XI Ruiyun, PEI Tingting, CHEN Ying, XIE Baopeng, HOU Li, WANG Wen. Spatiotemporal dynamic and drivers of ecological environmental quality on the Chinese Loess Plateau: Insights from kRSEI model and climate-human interaction analysis[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(7): 958-978.
[10] Ilan STAVI, Gal KAGAN, Sivan ISAACSON. Properties, challenges, and opportunities of the loess plains in the northern Negev Desert: A review[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(6): 715-734.
[11] LIU Huan, YAO Yuyan, AI Zemin, DANG Xiaohu, CAO Yong, LI Qingqing, HOU Mengjia, HU Haoli, ZHANG Yuanyuan, CAO Tian. Spatial and temporal evolution of forage-livestock balance in the agro-pastoral transition zone of northern China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(6): 754-771.
[12] LI Wei, WANG Yixuan, DUAN Limin, TONG Xin, WU Yingjie, ZHAO Shuixia. Non-stationary characteristics and causes of extreme precipitation in a desert steppe in Inner Mongolia, China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(5): 590-604.
[13] CHAO Yan, ZHU Yonghua, WANG Xiaohan, LI Jiamin, LIANG Li'e. Dynamic evolution of the NDVI and driving factors in the Mu Us Sandy Land of China from 2002 to 2021[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(5): 605-623.
[14] LYU Leting, JIANG Ruifeng, ZHENG Defeng, LIANG Liheng. Impact of climate change and land use/cover change on water yield in the Liaohe River Basin, Northeast China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(2): 182-199.
[15] LIU Xiaohong, LIU Chunhui, FAN Jiejie, QIU Chunxia. Drought risk assessment and future scenario prediction in agricultural cropping zones of China[J]. Journal of Arid Land, 2025, 17(12): 1694-1718.