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Journal of Arid Land
Journal of Arid Land  2024, Vol. 16 Issue (4): 531-549    DOI: 10.1007/s40333-024-0057-4
Research article     
Effects of wind speed, underlying surface, and seed morphological traits on the secondary seed dispersal in the Tengger Desert, China
QU Wenjie1,2,3, ZHAO Wenzhi1, YANG Xinguo2,4, WANG Lei2,4, ZHANG Xue2,4, QU Jianjun1,*()
1Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
2Key Laboratory of Restoration and Reconstruction of Degraded Ecosystems in Northwestern China of Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China
3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4School of Ecology and Environment, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China
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Abstract  

The maintenance of sand-fixing vegetation is important for the stability of artificial sand-fixing systems in which seed dispersal plays a key role. Based on field wind tunnel experiments using 11 common plant species on the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, China, we studied the secondary seed dispersal in the fixed and semi-fixed sand dunes as well as in the mobile dunes in order to understand the limitations of vegetation regeneration and the maintenance of its stability. Our results indicated that there were significant variations among the selected 11 plant species in the threshold of wind speed (TWS). The TWS of Caragana korshinskii was the highest among the 11 plant species, whereas that of Echinops gmelinii was the lowest. Seed morphological traits and underlying surface could generally explain the TWS. During the secondary seed dispersal processes, the proportions of seeds that did not disperse (no dispersal) and only dispersed over short distance (short-distance dispersal within the wind tunnel test section) were significantly higher than those of seeds that were buried (including lost seeds) and dispersed over long distance (long-distance dispersal beyond the wind tunnel test section). Compared with other habitats, the mobile dunes were the most difficult places for secondary seed dispersal. Buried seeds were the easiest to be found in the semi-fixed sand dunes, whereas fixed sand dunes were the best sites for seeds that dispersed over long distance. The results of linear mixed models showed that after controlling the dispersal distance, smaller and rounder seeds dispersed farther. Shape index and wind speed were the two significant influencing factors on the burial of seeds. The explanatory power of wind speed, underlying surface, and seed morphological traits on the seeds that did not disperse and dispersed over short distance was far greater than that on the seeds that were buried and dispersed over long distance, implying that the processes and mechanisms of burial and long-distance dispersal are more complex. In summary, most seeds in the study area either did not move, were buried, or dispersed over short distance, promoting local vegetation regeneration.

Key words： seed dispersal      seed morphological traits      wind speed      vegetation regeneration      wind tunnel      Tengger Desert     
Received: 08 January 2024      Published: 30 April 2024
Corresponding Authors: *QU Jianjun (E-mail: qujianj@lzb.ac.cn)
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QU Wenjie, ZHAO Wenzhi, YANG Xinguo, WANG Lei, ZHANG Xue, QU Jianjun. Effects of wind speed, underlying surface, and seed morphological traits on the secondary seed dispersal in the Tengger Desert, China. Journal of Arid Land, 2024, 16(4): 531-549.

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http://jal.xjegi.com/10.1007/s40333-024-0057-4     OR     http://jal.xjegi.com/Y2024/V16/I4/531

Fig. 1 Location of the study area in the Tengger Desert (a) and photos showing its spatial patterns (b-e). The images were obtained from the Beijing No. 2 Satellite in July 2021.
Habitat Underlying surface Dominant cryptogam Dominant spermatophyte Caragana korshinskii
Crown
(m2)		 Height
(m)		 Seed production per plant (seeds)
Fixed
sand dunes		 Moss crusts are
fully developed,
with coverages
of 60%-85%
after about 60 a
of enclosure.		 Bryum argenteum, Didymodon vinealis, and
Syntrichia caninervis		 C. korshinskii,
Eragrostis minor,
Echinops gmelinii, and
Chloris virgata		 2.26±0.38 1.09±0.07 173±42
Semi-fixed
sand dunes		 Algae crusts
dominate, with
coverages of
60%-70% after
about 20 a of
enclosure, and
they are not
continuous.		 Microcoleus vaginatus, Navicula cryptocephala,
and Lyngbya
cryptovaginatus		 C. korshinskii, E. minor,
Setaria viridis, and E
gmelinii		 4.80±0.56 1.33±0.05 1208±264
Mobile dunes Bare sand land
without crusts;
reticulate barchan chains of sand
dunes.		 - Agriophyllum pungens,
Stilpnolepis centiflora,
and Corispermum
mongolicum		 10.30±1.08 2.00±0.09 2359±399
Table 1 Basic characteristics of the three habitats
Species Family Life form Length
(mm)		 Width
(mm)		 Projection area
(mm2)		 Perimeter (mm) Diameter (mm)
Agropyron cristatum Poaceae P 5.17±0.064 1.07±0.019 3.39±0.050 13.30±0.195 2.08±0.015
Allium mongolicum Liliaceae P 3.03±0.041 2.17±0.030 4.77±0.117 9.90±0.136 2.45±0.031
Ammopiptanthus mongolicus Leguminosae S 6.30±0.087 5.24±0.068 25.10±0.645 23.20±0.324 5.63±0.075
Calligonum mongolicum Polygonaceae S 10.80±0.139 6.87±0.120 41.60±0.996 47.10±1.410 7.25±0.087
Caragana korshinskii Leguminosae S 6.21±0.117 3.80±0.045 18.20±0.483 20.20±0.370 4.80±0.062
Corethrodendron fruticosum Papilionaceae S 5.83±0.068 3.41±0.046 14.50±0.301 18.30±0.197 4.29±0.045
Corethrodendron scoparium Papilionaceae S 6.86±0.071 4.69±0.042 23.00±0.307 22.70±0.179 5.41±0.037
Corispermum mongolicum Chenopodiaceae A 3.28±0.031 2.45±0.030 5.87±0.121 11.00±0.125 2.73±0.029
Echinops gmelinii Compositae A 5.80±0.059 1.60±0.018 6.13±0.125 16.00±0.243 2.79±0.029
Hippophae rhamnoides Elaeagnaceae S 2.93±0.045 2.00±0.028 4.27±0.101 9.30±0.133 2.32±0.027
Nitraria tangutorum Zygophyllaceae S 5.79±0.073 3.52±0.061 14.10±0.377 18.40±0.250 4.22±0.058
Minimum 2.38 0.78 2.66 7.39 1.84
Median 5.70 3.26 12.96 17.51 4.06
Mean 5.65 3.36 14.73 19.08 4.01
Maximum 13.02 9.02 60.26 79.29 8.76
CV 0.38 0.51 0.79 0.55 0.41
Table S1 Seed morphological traits (length, width, projection area, perimeter, and diameter) of the selected 11 plant species
Species Length/
width		 Circularity Compacity Rugosity TSW (g) Wing loading (g/mm2) Shape index
A. cristatum 4.98±0.096 2.79±0.046 0.62±0.011 0.62±0.013 2.40±0.548 0.72±0.011 0.15±0.0010
A. mongolicum 1.43±0.021 1.10±0.008 0.72±0.004 0.37±0.005 2.20±0.447 0.48±0.012 0.07±0.0028
A. mongolicus 1.22±0.007 1.09±0.004 0.75±0.002 0.24±0.002 35.33±1.885 1.46±0.043 0.11±0.0014
Calligonum mongolicum 1.61±0.021 2.72±0.112 0.56±0.006 0.56±0.007 64.96±2.323 1.61±0.038 0.06±0.0018
C. korshinskii 1.67±0.030 1.15±0.011 0.77±0.005 0.25±0.003 46.40±2.408 2.63±0.064 0.05±0.0020
C. fruticosum 1.75±0.026 1.19±0.009 0.73±0.004 0.27±0.004 13.40±0.274 0.94±0.020 0.07±0.0015
C. scoparium 1.49±0.020 1.13±0.008 0.72±0.004 0.27±0.004 30.20±1.789 1.33±0.019 0.04±0.0013
Corispermum mongolicum 1.37±0.013 1.08±0.008 0.73±0.004 0.33±0.004 1.38±0.128 0.24±0.005 0.13±0.0013
E. gmelinii 3.70±0.039 2.12±0.020 0.66±0.005 0.53±0.010 4.20±0.243 0.70±0.016 0.13±0.0012
H. rhamnoides 1.49±0.025 1.08±0.007 0.73±0.003 0.35±0.004 3.00±0.201 0.72±0.017 0.04±0.0018
N. tangutorum 1.69±0.028 1.23±0.010 0.69±0.004 0.33±0.005 26.6±1.673 1.96±0.060 0.04±0.0016
Minimum 1.10 0.99 0.46 0.20 1.05 0.18 0.0047
Median 1.57 1.16 0.71 0.33 13.40 0.96 0.0653
Mean 2.04 1.51 0.70 0.37 20.96 1.16 0.0797
Maximum 6.56 5.07 0.85 0.82 72.66 3.51 0.1532
CV 0.57 0.46 0.10 0.36 0.97 0.61 0.0192
Table S2 Seed morphological traits (length/width, circularity, compacity, rugosity, TSW, Wing loading, and shape index) of the selected 11 plant species
Fig. S1 Pictures showing the seeds of the selected 11 plant species
Fig. 2 Photo of field wind tunnel equipment (a) and diagram of wind tunnel test section (b)
Model Response
variable		 Fixed effect Random
effect		 Conditional
R2		 Marginal R2 Variables with significant effect
1 No dispersal Circularity, TSW, wing loading, wind speed, underlying surface, and appendage Species 0.794 0.777 Underlying surface and wind speed
2 Short-distance dispersal Circularity, TSW, wing loading, wind speed, underlying surface, and shape index Species 0.756 0.739 Circularity, TSW, wind speed, and underlying surface
3 Burial Circularity, TSW, wing loading, wind speed, underlying surface, and shape index Species 0.378 0.293 Wind speed and shape index
4 Long-distance dispersal Circularity, TSW, wing loading, wind speed, underlying surface, and shape index Species 0.407 0.371 Underlying surface and wind speed
5 TWS Circularity, TSW, wing loading, wind speed, underlying surface, and shape index Species 0.838 0.564 Underlying surface and appendage
6 No dispersal Underlying surface and wind speed Species 0.770 0.751 -
7 Short-distance dispersal Circularity, TSW, wind speed, and underlying surface Species 0.744 0.726 -
8 Burial Wind speed and shape index Species 0.303 0.213 -
9 Long-distance dispersal Underlying surface and wind speed Species 0.368 0.330 -
10 TWS Underlying surface and appendage Species 0.840 0.518 -
Table 2 Linear mixed models implemented to assess the effects driving TWS and the destination of seeds
Fig. 3 Diagram showing the K-means cluster analysis of plant species based on seed morphological traits. Ecg, Echinops gmelinii; Cam, Calligonum mongolicum; Cos, Corethrodendron scoparium; Cof, Corethrodendron fruticosum; Nit, Nitraria tangutorum; Agc, Agropyron cristatum; Hir, Hippophae rhamnoides; Com, Corispermum mongolicum; Cak, Caragana korshinskii; Alm, Allium mongolicum; Amm, Ammopiptanthus mongolicus. The abbreviations are the same in the following figures.
Fig. 4 Comparison of TWS of the 11 plant species in different habitats. (a), fixed sand dunes with moss crusts; (b), semi-fixed sand dunes with algae crusts; (c), mobile dunes. TWS, threshold of wind speed. Bars represent standard errors. Different lowercase letters within the same habitat indicate significant differences in TWS among different plant species at the P<0.05 level.
Fig. 5 Distributions of seed density and seed deposition during the secondary seed dispersal processes in different habitats. (a and d), fixed sand dunes with moss crusts; (b and e), semi-fixed sand dunes with algae crusts; (c and f), mobile dunes. The dots to the left of the gray dashed line at the 0.0 scale value represent the seeds that did not disperse. The dots between the two gray dashed lines at the 6.5 and 7.0 scale values represent the lost seeds. The dots to the right of the gray dashed line at the 7.0 scale value represent the seeds that dispersed over long distance.
Fig. 6 Secondary seed dispersal patterns of major plant species in the fixed sand dunes with moss crusts, semi-fixed sand dunes with algae crusts, and mobile dunes. (a-c), Cof; (d-f), Cak; (g-i), Cam; (j-l), Cos; (m-o), Ecg. The dots to the left of the gray dashed line at the 0.0 scale value represent the seeds that did not disperse. The dots between the two gray dashed lines between the 6.5 and 7.0 scale values represent the lost seeds. The dots to the right of the gray dashed line at the 7.0 scale value represent the seeds that dispersed over long distance.
Fig. 7 Variance partition of the significant drivers for TWS. R2, variance of the fixed effects. The circles represent the marginal R2 value for each driver and the total marginal R2 value. The black lines represent the 95% confidence intervals of the marginal R2 values.
Fig. 8 Variance partition of the significant drivers for the secondary seed dispersal. The circles represent the marginal R2 value for each driver and the total marginal R2 value. The black lines represent the 95% confidence intervals of the marginal R2 values.
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